Table 1.

Characteristics of stigma-based bullying interventions, 2000–2015

Authors (Date) Intervention Title	Stigma	Country	Guiding Theory or Framework	Program Type	Targeted Population Sample Characteristics	Intervention Overview	Evaluation Design	Results
Gus (2000)	Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)	United Kingdom	None noted	Indicated preventive	Students One 10th grade class	Discussion adapted from Circle of Friends guide and instruction about ASD	Qualitative posttest 1 week after intervention with open-ended written questions	Self-reported more positive attitudes toward and less social rejection of student with ASD in class
Meraviglia, Becker, Rosenbluth, Sanchez, & Robertson (2003) Expect Respect Elementary School Project	Female sex/gender	United States	None noted	Universal	Whole school N=740 5th grade students; 16% African American, 25% Latino, 59% White N=1,122 staff members in 12 elementary schools; 11% African American, 21% Latino, 65% White	Implementation of the following components: (1) 12 weekly sessions of student classroom education; (2) staff training; (3) policy and procedure development; (4) parent education via seminars and newsletters; (5) support services for individual students involved in bullying	Schools randomized to intervention or control; Quantitative pretest-posttest	Among students, increased knowledge about sexual harassment but not bullying, and greater awareness of bullying; Among teachers, no differences in knowledge
Mpofu (2003)	Physical disabilities (PD)	Zimbabwe	Role salience (role visibility and importance), peer interaction, and academic achievement lead to social acceptance	Universal	Students N=8,342 in 194 classrooms; 11–14 years old; 2.6% with physical disabilities	3-month classroom-based social enhancement interventions involving (1) role salience (assignment of student with PD to prominent classroom role, e.g., class monitor), (2) peer interaction (students with and without PDs assigned to work together on assignments), or (3) academic support (remediation, tutoring)	Classrooms randomized to 8 conditions including control and combinations of 3 interventions; Quantitative pretest-posttest at 3 and 6 months	Interventions involving role salience increased perceived social acceptance of students with PDs; Effects were stronger when combined with peer interaction and/or academic support
Szalacha (2003) Safe Schools Program for Gay and Lesbian Students (SSP)	Minority sexual orientation (LGB)	United States	None noted	Universal	Whole schools N=1,646 students in 33 schools; 9th–12th grades; 6.8% sexual minority, 51.9% female, 71.2% White	Implementation of the following components: (1) develop school policies protecting LGB students from bullying; (2) offer training to school personnel in crisis and suicide intervention; (3) support establishment of Gay-Straight Alliances	Quantitative posttest	Students in schools that implemented more aspects of the SSP reported better sexual diversity climate, including lower reports of bullying
Bauer, Lozano, & Rivara (2007) Olweus Bullying Prevention Program	Minority race/ethnicity	United States	None noted	Universal	Whole schools N=6,518 in 10 schools; 6th–8th grades; 35.1% White, 23.5% Asian, 15.8% African American, 49.9% female	Implementation of the following components over one school year: rule setting, staff training, school assembly, student and parent engagement, class discussions, awareness campaign	Nonrandomized controlled trial; Quantitative pretest-posttest; Qualitative assessment of implementation	Reduction of relational and physical bullying among white students in intervention schools but not among students of other races/ethnicities
Etherington (2007)	Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)	United Kingdom	None noted	Indicated preventive	Students N=6, 8th grade	6 weekly sessions with 6 students chosen to be peer supporters of student with ASD involving discussion, activities, video partly adapted from Circle of Friends	Qualitative posttest	Reduction of bullying incidents experienced by student with ASD
Beaumont & Sofronoff (2008) The Junior Detective Training Program	Asperger syndrome (AS)	Australia	Social skills training	Selective preventive	Students with AS N=49; 7.5–11 years; 11.4% female	8 sessions involving group social skills training, parent training, teacher hand-outs, computer game designed to teach skills in emotion recognition and regulation, and social interaction	Randomized controlled trial; Quantitative pretest-posttest with 6-week and 5-month follow-ups	Generated more ideas regarding how to effectively cope with being bullied at school post intervention and at follow-ups
Robertson (2008)	Minority sexual orientation, Minority gender expression and/or identity (LGBT)	United States	None noted	Indicated preventive	Students N=4; 5th grade; 100% boys; 50% African American, 50% Latino	6 weekly sessions, followed by biweekly sessions for duration of school year led by school psychology students involving activities focused on building social skills, accepting differences, working together, and resolving problems	All students received intervention; Qualitative posttest, focus group with students, interviews with school staff	Reduced bullying of targeted student; Increased students’ abilities to (1) accept individual differences, (2) express feelings, (3) accepting constructive feedback
Taylor (2008) Human Rights/Anti-Homophobia	Minority sexual orientation (LGB)	Canada	None noted	Universal	Teachers, administrators, and other school staff; N=6,000 + school employees	Single 2.5 hour workshop for all school employees involving lecture about human rights and homophobia, and policies relevant to LGBTQ bullying; Resource development, including availability of LGBTQ-inclusive books and videos, posters, and anti-homophobia resource guide	None	None noted
DePalma & Atkinson (2009) No Outsiders	Minority sexual orientation, Minority gender expression and/or identity (LGBT)	United Kingdom	Critical pedagogy, participatory action	Universal	Teachers N=15 teachers in schools located in 3 regions of UK	Teachers received children’s books, other support materials (e.g., lesson plans), and in-service training on sexualities equality; but given much leeway for implementation	Qualitative, ongoing throughout intervention	None noted
Dessel (2010) Pubiic Conversations Project	Minority sexual orientation (LGB)	United States	Intergroup dialogue	Universal	Teachers N=36; 80.5% women, 94.4% White, 100% heterosexual	3 sessions including teachers and LGB community members over 2 weeks involving dialogue guided by manual, stereotype-reduction activities, video and reading materials	Teachers randomized to control or intervention; Mixed-methods pretest-posttest	Increased support of civil rights, more positive feelings about gays and lesbians, greater perspective taking, anticipated greater support of LGBT issues in schools
Payne & Smith (2010) Reduction of Stigma in Schools	Minority sexual orientation, Minority gender expression and/or identity (LGBTQ)	United States	None noted	Universal	Teachers N=322 teachers who responded to surveys; N=11who responded to open-ended questions	Single ½-3 hour session involving professional development, with goals to: (1) enhance knowledge of associations between stigma and LGBTQ bullying; (2) provide education and tools for creating positive learning environments; (3) actively create opportunities for dialogue and change to support LGBTQ students. Involves discussion and activities	Mixed-methods posttests	Greater understanding of social stigma experienced by LGBTQ students, and association between stigma and bullying; Increased commitment to intervention
Brinkman, Jedinak, Rosen & Zimmerman (2011) Fairness for All Individuals through Respect (FAIR)	Female gender	United States	Banks’ educational model for teaching about intersections of identities	Universal	Students N=121 in 6 classrooms; 5th grade; 54.5% girls; 65% White, 23% Latino	Single 2.5-hour session involving completion of program activities focusing on identifying and challenging gender stereotypes, and practicing responding to gender-based bullying	Classrooms randomized to control or intervention; Mixed-methods pretest-posttest after 1 week	Reduced frequency of gender-based bullying as reported by teachers and students
Vessey & O’Neill (2011) Take a Stand, Lend a Hand, Stop Bullying Now	Physical, cognitive, and/or emotional disability	United States	Resilience building through creating peer support groups, providing safe environment, teaching social competence	Selective preventive	Students living with disabilities N=65 in 8 schools; 9–14 years old; 66.2% boys; 86.5% White	12 biweekly sessions conducted by school nurse with support group including viewing webisodes about bullying from campaign, discussing reactions, and completing activities; Stop Bullying Now tip sheets distributed to school staff and parents	Mixed-methods pretest-posttest	Reduced reports of bullying and improved self-concept as reported by students; no differences in global psychosocial functioning as reported by parents
Wernick, Dessel, Kulick & Graham (2013)	Minority sexual orientation, Minority gender expression and/or identity (LGBTQ)	United States	Allyhood development, Theater of the Oppressed, community-based participatory research	Universal	Students N=832 in 4 high schools and 3 middle schools; 8th–12th grades; 75% straight/cisgender; 55% White; 53% cisgender men, 40% cisgender women, 7% trans*/genderqueer	Single ~90-minute session involving (1) arts-based performance including storytelling and sharing climate survey data, (2) common ground activity, (3) post-performance dialogue with audience	Mixed-methods pretest-posttest	Increased self-reported likelihood and confidence in ability to intervene when witnessing LGBTQ bullying
Gómez, Munte, & Sorde (2014)	Arab-Muslim, Roma race/ethnicity	Spain	Community involvement	Universal	Whole schools N=2 schools; School 1: 64% immigrant students; 61.2% Moroccan, 11.4% South American, 4.4% Black African, 14.4% Roman; School 2: not reported	Roma and Arab-Muslim adult men brought into schools, worked with children, role modeled positive cross-race interactions, enrolled in courses	Qualitative fieldwork	Reduced stereotypes and prejudice, greater school retention, reduced bullying
Mattey, McCloughan & Hanrahan (2014)	Minority sexual orientation, Minority gender expression and/or identity (LGBT)	Australia	Social norms theory, values-based approaches	Universal	Volleyball players N=Unspecified; 23 years old and younger	Single 90-minute session, tailored for <15 year olds, 15–17 year olds, and 17–23 year olds involving activities designed to demonstrate stereotyping and exclusion, video clips about bullying, discussion about team values, and instruction on reporting bullying; focus on role models in oldest age group	Quantitative posttest	Perceived learning about consequences of bullying, stereotyping, and importance of not bullying and sticking up for bullying targets
Panzer & Dhuper (2014)	Obesity	United States	Social learning theory, cognitive theory	Selective preventive	Obese pediatric patients N=5; 10–12 years old; 60% boys	6 sessions total; 1 individual session with patient and parent to review bullying experiences, 4 group sessions with patients to teach coping skills (ignoring, engaging in positive self-talk, confronting), and practice skills with role playing; 1 session with parents to review skills	Quantitative pretest-posttest at 2 years	Decreased frequency of bullying and distress in response to bullying, increased use of coping skills among patients
Connolly, Josephson, Schnoll et al. (2015) Respect in Schools Everywhere (RISE)	Female sex/gender, Non-stigma related bullying	Canada	Peer leadership	Universal	Students N=509 students in 4 schools; 7th–8th grades; 51.4% female; 34.7% South Asian, 20.0% Asian, 12.5% European, 12.5% Middle Eastern, 12.5% African/Caribbean, 7.7% Other	2 45-minute classroom presentations by youth leaders from local high school; Youth leaders are trained by mental health workers and follow a manual, which they are able to personalize	Cluster-randomized controlled trial; Quantitative pretest-posttest	Increased knowledge about bullying and sexual harassment; Reduction in anxiety; No change in attitudes toward bullying or sexual harassment; No change in bullying or sexual harassment
Espelage, Low, Polanin, & Brown (2015) Second Step: Student Success Through Prevention (SS-SSTP)	Minority sexual orientation (LGB), Female sex/gender, Non-stigma related bullying	United States	Social-emotional learning	Universal	Students N=3,658 students in 36 schools located in 2 states; 6th–7th grades; 52.2% male; 34.4% African-American, 25.8% Latino, 24.8% White	28 weekly or semi-weekly lessons through 6th and 7th grades, including instruction, role modeling and activities to promote empathy, emotion regulation, communication skills, and problem-solving strategies	Cluster-randomized controlled trial; Quantitative pretest-posttest at 2 years	Reduction in homophobic victimization and sexual violence victimization in one state; No reductions in bullying perpetration and peer victimization
Espelage, Rose, & Polanin (2015) Second Step: Student Success Through Prevention (SS-SSTP)	Physical, cognitive, and/or emotional disability	United States	Social-emotional learning	Universal	Students with disabilities N=123 students in 12 schools; 6th–8th grades; 53% female; 53% African-American, 31% White, 6% Latino	15 lessons through 6th–8th grades, including instruction, role modeling and activities to promote empathy, emotion regulation, communication skills, and problem-solving strategies	Cluster randomized controlled trial; Quantitative pretest-posttest at 2 years	No changes in bullying victimization or physical aggression; Reductions in bullying perpetration
Lucassen & Burford (2015) RainbowYOUTH	Minority sexual orientation (LGBQ)	New Zealand	None noted	Universal	Students N=229 in 2 high schools, 10 classes; School years 9–10; 12–15 years old; 53.7% boys, 68.1% Pacific ethnicity	Single 60-minute workshop led by educator involving education about sexual orientation and homophobia, sharing of educator’s coming out story, discussion of how to make school safer for LGB students	Quantitative pretest-posttest	Increased valuing and understanding of LGBQ students