Fig. 4.

Multimodular 3D structures. a–e Examples of multimodular 3D structures with 4 modules with (a–d) and without (e) directional control. The modules were programmed to deform in the directions indicated by the white arrows. f–j Strategies to control the orientation of the modules in the corresponding structures in a–e. The color maps illustrate Ω used to create the structures. The small and large circles with white dashed lines indicate the parallel and perpendicular transitional components, respectively. k Reconstructed 3D image of a stingray model with K. l Modular design of a stingray-inspired 3D structure in m. The modules for the body and the pectoral fins were designed based on the K map in k and Supplementary Figure 13. m, n Stingray-inspired 3D structures with oscillatory flapping motions. The white arrows indicate the direction of the motions. Scale bars, 4 mm in a–e; 2 mm in m; 4 mm in n