Table 1.
Characteristics of Cognitive Training Studies in Healthy, Community-Dwelling Older Adults in the United States From 1986 to 2015 (N = 31)
| Participant demographics | Study characteristics | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Author (year) | N (TC, CC) | Race/ethnicity | Age range (mean) | Type of training | Duration/total hours | Outcomes of interest |
| Anderson et al. (2013) | 67 | NR | NR (63) | Auditory-based cognitive training vs. general education stimulation program | 8 weeks | Memory, speed of processing, speech-in-noise perception |
| Bailey, Dunlosky, & Hertzog (2010) | 56 (29, 27) | C: 54 | 60–89 (NR) | Metacognitive training at home vs. control | 2 weeks/2.5+ h | Paired associates |
| O: 2 | ||||||
| Ball et al. (2002) | 2,802 | C: 2,054 | 65–94 (74) | Memory training or reasoning training or speed training vs. control | Ten 60–75-min sessions over 5–6 weeks | Cognitive abilities (memory, reasoning, speed of processing) and daily functions (everyday problem-solving, everyday speed, activities of daily living, driving habits) |
| Memory training: 711 | B: 729 | |||||
| Reasoning training: 705 | O: 19 | |||||
| Speed training: 712 | ||||||
| Control: 704 | ||||||
| Beck et al. (2013) | 228 (116, 112) | C: 210 | NR (59) | Cognitive intervention vs. control, weight-loss intervention | 4 months/32 h | Memory, attention, visuospatial, language |
| O: 18 | ||||||
| Belchior et al. (2013) | 58 | C: 58 | 65–91 (75) | Target action game vs. placebo control arcade game vs. clinically validated UFOV training program vs. no-contact control group | 2–3 weeks/9 h | Speed, divided attention, selective attention |
| Target action game: 14 | ||||||
| Placebo control arcade game: 15 | ||||||
| UFOV: 16 | ||||||
| Control: 13 | ||||||
| Berry et al. (2010) | 32 | NR | NR (72) | Perceptual discrimination training vs. control | 10 h | Working memory |
| Bozoki, Radovanovic, Winn, Heeter, & Anthony (2013) | 60 (32, 28) | NR | NR (69) | Computer game-based cognitive training “My Better Mind” vs. control | 6 weeks | The CogState battery |
| Brooks, Friedman, Pearman, Gray, & Yesavage (1999) | 268 (224, 44) | NR | 55–88 (69) | Mnemonic training vs. control | 2 weeks | Name recall, word recall |
| Chapman et al. (2015) | 37 | NR | 56–71 (63) | Cognitive training vs. wait-list control | 12 weeks | Neural changes in the brain |
| Edwards, Ruva, O’Brien, Haley, & Lister (2013) | 60 (27, 33) | C: 57 | 59–95 (74) | InSight cognitive training vs. control | 2–3 times/week for 10–12 weeks | UFOV |
| O: 3 | ||||||
| Fairchild & Scogin (2010) | 53 | C: 41 | 57–99 (72) | Memory enhancement vs. minimal social support | 6 weeks | Face-name recall, delayed recall |
| B: 11 | ||||||
| A: 1 | ||||||
| Hill, Sheikh, & Yesavage (1987) | 76 (59, 17) | NR | NR (68) | Mnemonic training vs. control | 8-h group training (2 h/ day, twice a week for 2 weeks) | Name–face recall |
| Hill, Allen, & McWhorter (1991) | 71 | NR | 60–83 (70) | Narrative story training vs. method of loci training; travel training (placebo) | 1 h | Free recall |
| Lachman, Weaver, Bandura, Elliott, & Lewkowicz (1992) | 105 | NR | NR (69) | Cognitive restructuring vs. memory skills training vs. combined cognitive restructuring and memory skills training vs. practice on memory tasks vs. no-contact control group | Varies by training type | Memory |
| Legault et al. (2011) | 73 | C: 66 | 70–85 (78) | Physical activity training vs. cognitive training vs. combined training vs. health education control | 4 months | Immediate recall, delayed recall, working memory, attention, cognitive function |
| B: 7 | ||||||
| Lustig & Flegal (2008) | 32 | NR | TC: NR (75) CC: NR (76) |
Memory training with strategy instruction vs. memory training with strategy choice | 3 weeks | Memory |
| Integrated sentences: 16 | ||||||
| Strategy choice: 16 | ||||||
| Mahncke et al. (2006) | 182 | NR | 60–87 (71) | Experimental computer-based training vs. active computer-based control vs. no-contact control | 60 min per day, 5 days per week for 8–10 weeks | Auditory cognition: list learning, story memory, digit span forward, delayed free list recall, relayed list recognition, delayed free story recall |
| Experimental training: 62 | ||||||
| Matched active control: 61 | ||||||
| No-contact control: 59 | ||||||
| Margrett & Willis (2006) | 98 | NR | 61–89 (71) | In-home individual inductive reasoning training vs. collaborative training vs. no-treatment control | Reasoning | |
| In-home individual inductive reasoning training: 30 | ||||||
| Collaborative training: 34 | ||||||
| No-treatment control: 34 | ||||||
| McDaniel et al. (2014) | 96 | C: 80 | NR (65) | Cognitive training vs. exercise training vs. combined training vs. control | 6 months | Laboratory tasks that simulate everyday activities: cooking breakfast, virtual week, and memory for health information |
| Cognitive training: 23 | O: 16 | |||||
| Exercise training: 24 | ||||||
| Combined: 24 | ||||||
| Control: 25 | ||||||
| McDougall et al. (2010b) | 265 (135, 130) | C: 189 | 65–94 (NR) | Memory training vs. health promotion training | 6 months | Verbal memory, visual memory, memory complaints, memory self- efficacy, cognitive function, activities of daily living |
| B: 30 | ||||||
| H: 46 | ||||||
| Mozolic, Long, Morgan, Rawley-Payne, & Laurienti (2011) | 62 (30, 32) | NR | NR (69) | Modality-specific attention training vs. educational lecture control | 8 weeks/8 h | Immediate recall, delayed recall, selective attention, processing speed, attention, working memory |
| O’Brien et al. (2013) | 22 (11, 11) | C: 22 | NR (72) | Behavioral speed of processing training vs. no-contact control | 10 weeks | Attention |
| Richmond, Morrison, Chein, & Olson (2011) | 40 (21, 19) | NR | 60–80 (66) | Working memory training vs. trivia learning regime | 4–5 weeks/12.5 h | Working memory reading span, working memory digit span, attention, general intelligence, verbal learning |
| Scogin, Fairchild, Yon, Welsh, & Presnell (2014) | 53 | NR | NR (68) | Cognitive bibliotherapy plus memory training vs. cognitive bibliotherapy alone vs. wait-list control | 8 weeks | Memory, depression |
| Shatil (2013) | 122 | NR | 65–93 (77) | Cognitive training, physical activity training, combined cognitive and physical activity vs. control | Forty-eight 40-min sessions (3 times a week for 16 weeks)—total of 32 h | Hand–eye coordination, global visual memory, speed of information processing, visual scanning, naming |
| Cognitive training: 33 | ||||||
| Physical activity training: 31 | ||||||
| Combined cognitive and physical activity training: 29 | ||||||
| Book club control: 29 | ||||||
| Smith et al. (2009) | 487 (242, 245) | C: 461 | TC: NR (76) | Brain plasticity-based computerized cognitive training vs. general cognitive stimulation program | 8 weeks/40 h | Overall memory, immediate recall, delayed recall, reasoning, working memory, processing speed, cognitive function, subjective cognitive function |
| O: 26 | CC: NR (75) | |||||
| Smith-Ray et al. (2014) | 45 (23, 22) | B: 45 | NR (73) | Computer-based cognitive training vs. control | 10 weeks/20 h | Balance, gait speed under visuospatial dual-task condition |
| Stine-Morrow, Parisi, Morrow, & Park (2008) | 150 (87, 63) | NR | 59–93 (73) | Senior Odyssey program vs. control | 20 weeks | Processing speed, working memory, inductive reasoning, visual-spatial processing, divergent thinking |
| Stine-Morrow et al. (2014) | 461 | NR | 60–94 (NR) | Inductive reasoning training vs. competitive program in creative problem-solving vs. wait-list control | 16 weeks | Reasoning, problem- solving, processing speed, visuospatial processing, verbal episodic memory |
| Strenziok et al. (2014) | 42 | NR | Brain fitness: NR (70) Rise of Nations: NR (69) Space Fortress: NR (69) |
Brain fitness vs. Rise of Nations vs. Space Fortress | 6 weeks | Everyday problem-solving, reasoning |
| Willis & Schaie (1986) | 229 | NR. Most were Caucasian | 64–95 (73) | Inductive reasoning training vs. spatial orientation training | 2 weeks/5 h | Spatial orientation, inductive reasoning |
Note: A = Asian American; B = Black/African American; H = Hispanic/Latino American; O = other race/ethnicity; W = non-Hispanic White/Caucasian. CC = control condition; NR = not reported; TC = training condition; UFOV = useful field of view.