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. 2018 Sep 10;9:1745. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01745

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Copyright © 2018 Nie, Xie, Chen and Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Schematic diagram speculating the immunomodulatory mechanism by Lactobacillus zeae. Pretreatment with L. zeae LB1 altered the production of antimicrobial peptides through the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and DAF/IGF pathways of cell signaling, therefore, changed the resistance of Caenorhabditis elegans to Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) infection. The hypothesis was based on the data of both life-span assays and gene expression of various C. elegans mutants either pretreated or not treated with L. zeae LB1 before the ETEC infection. While dashed lines represent the cascades described in previous literatures, solid lines indicate the effects observed in the present study. ▾, Upregulation; ┴, downregulation. Dashed circle: potential functional sites in the cell signaling targeted by L. zeae LB1. ?, Indicating that the regulation could be direct or indirect. More specifically, the downregulation in the production of antimicrobial peptides could be controlled by dbl-1 or age-1 directly or through pmk-1 and sek-1 in the p38-MAPK pathway in the wild-type nematode (Figures 5C,D).