Table 1. Baseline Characteristics by Total Coffee Intake in the UK Biobank Cohorta.
| Characteristic | Coffee Consumption, Cups/d, by 498 134 Participants, No. (%) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | <1 | 1 | 2-3 | 4-5 | 6-7 | ≥8 | |
| No. (%) | 110 640 (22.2) | 36 159 (7.3) | 99 895 (20.1) | 154 337 (31.0) | 66 539 (13.4) | 20 539 (4.1) | 10 025 (2.0) |
| Age, median (IQR), y | 56 (49-62) | 57 (50-63) | 59 (51-64) | 59 (51-64) | 58 (50-63) | 57 (50-63) | 55 (48-61) |
| Tea intake, median (IQR), cups/d | 4 (2-6) | 4 (3-6) | 4 (2-5) | 3 (1-4) | 2 (0-3) | 0.5 (0-3) | 0 (0-2) |
| wCMSG2, median (IQR)b | 1.8 (0.9-2.0) | 1.8 (0.9-2.0) | 1.8 (0.9-2.0) | 1.8 (0.9-2.0) | 1.8 (0.9-2.0) | 1.8 (0.9-2.9) | 1.8 (0.9-2.9) |
| wCMSG4, median (IQR)b | 3.6 (2.5-4.7) | 3.6 (2.5-4.7) | 3.7 (2.5-4.9) | 3.7 (2.6-4.9) | 3.8 (2.6-5.0) | 3.9 (2.6-5.0) | 3.9 (2.7-5.0) |
| rs762551 (CYP1A2*1A)b | |||||||
| 0 | 7825 (8.8) | 2510 (8.6) | 6557 (8.1) | 9566 (7.6) | 3848 (7.1) | 1140 (6.9) | 507 (6.3) |
| 1 | 36 447 (41.0) | 11 925 (40.16) | 33 065 (40.7) | 50 271 (39.9) | 21 050 (39.1) | 6435 (38.8) | 3075 (38.3) |
| 2 | 44 601 (50.2) | 14 917 (50.8) | 41 620 (51.2) | 66 017 (52.5) | 28 978 (53.8) | 9024 (54.4) | 4438 (55.3) |
| Coffee typec | |||||||
| Instant | NA | 17 296 (51.0) | 50 855 (52.9) | 83 929 (55.7) | 41 490 (63.7) | 13 623 (67.7) | 6926 (71.2) |
| Ground | NA | 9736 (28.7) | 25 832 (26.9) | 38 133 (25.3) | 10 606 (16.3) | 2336 (11.6) | 1022 (10.5) |
| Decaffeinated | NA | 6854 (20.2) | 19 487 (20.3) | 28 725 (19.1) | 13 044 (20.0) | 4160 (20.7) | 1783 (18.3) |
| Sex | |||||||
| Male | 46 233 (41.8) | 16 179 (44.7) | 42 824 (42.9) | 71 855 (46.6) | 33 704 (50.7) | 10 573 (51.5) | 5747 (57.3) |
| Female | 64 407 (58.2) | 19 980 (55.3) | 57 071 (57.1) | 82 482 (53.4) | 32 835 (49.3) | 9966 (48.5) | 4278 (42.7) |
| Smoking status | |||||||
| Never | 65 025 (58.8) | 21 127 (58.4) | 57 666 (57.7) | 84 410 (54.7) | 32 567 (48.9) | 8619 (42.0) | 3301 (32.9) |
| Former | 34 767 (31.4) | 12 045 (33.3) | 34 877 (34.9) | 55 591 (36.0) | 24 572 (36.9) | 7531 (36.7) | 3333 (33.2) |
| Current | 10 848 (9.8) | 2987 (8.3) | 7352 (7.4) | 14 336 (9.3) | 9400 (14.1) | 4389 (21.4) | 3391 (33.8) |
| Race/ethnicity | |||||||
| White | 99 427 (90.2) | 33 548 (93.1) | 93 754 (94.1) | 148 527 (96.6) | 64 898 (97.9) | 20 113 (98.3) | 9793 (98.0) |
| Black | 3419 (3.1) | 757 (2.1) | 1720 (1.7) | 1472 (1.0) | 393 (0.6) | 86 (0.4) | 43 (0.4) |
| Asian | 5155 (4.7) | 1102 (3.1) | 2464 (2.5) | 1851 (1.2) | 397 (0.6) | 94 (0.5) | 32 (0.3) |
| Mixed | 782 (0.7) | 250 (0.7) | 638 (0.6) | 826 (0.5) | 303 (0.5) | 72 (0.4) | 60 (0.6) |
| Other | 1451 (1.3) | 374 (1.0) | 1007 (1.0) | 1154 (0.8) | 310 (0.5) | 105 (0.5) | 61 (0.6) |
| Self-reported health | |||||||
| Excellent | 15 804 (14.4) | 5745 (16.0) | 16 945 (17.0) | 27 649 (18.0) | 11 061 (16.7) | 2965 (14.5) | 1350 (13.6) |
| Good | 61 050 (55.5) | 21 036 (58.5) | 58 767 (59.1) | 91 471 (59.5) | 38 576 (58.2) | 11 470 (56.1) | 5052 (50.7) |
| Fair | 26 253 (23.9) | 7483 (20.8) | 19 859 (20.0) | 29 334 (19.1) | 13 945 (21.0) | 4892 (23.9) | 2653 (26.6) |
| Poor | 6859 (6.2) | 1683 (4.7) | 3912 (3.9) | 5323 (3.5) | 2677 (4.0) | 1115 (5.5) | 900 (9.0) |
| BMI | |||||||
| <18.5 | 628 (0.6) | 197 (0.6) | 482 (0.5) | 651 (0.4) | 255 (0.4) | 88 (0.4) | 61 (0.6) |
| 18.5 to <25.0 | 35 035 (32.3) | 12 330 (34.7) | 34 761 (35.4) | 49 339 (32.5) | 17 666 (27.0) | 5091 (25.2) | 2563 (26.1) |
| 25.0 to <30.0 | 44 542 (41.1) | 14 865 (41.9) | 41 338 (42.2) | 66 265 (43.7) | 29 246 (44.7) | 8751 (43.4) | 4100 (41.8) |
| 30.0 to <35.0 | 19 597 (18.1) | 5845 (16.5) | 15 520 (15.8) | 26 015 (17.2) | 13 109 (20.0) | 4365 (21.6) | 2137 (21.8) |
| ≥35.0 | 8517 (7.9) | 2259 (6.4) | 5965 (6.1) | 9398 (6.2) | 5113 (7.8) | 1877 (9.3) | 948 (9.7) |
| Physical activity (>10 min of moderate or vigorous activity), d/wk | |||||||
| 0 | 13 227 (13.3) | 3651 (11.1) | 9244 (10.0) | 14 656 (10.2) | 7403 (12.0) | 2704 (14.4) | 1516 (16.7) |
| 1-2 | 13 330 (13.4) | 4656 (14.2) | 12 319 (13.3) | 19 915 (13.9) | 9096 (14.8) | 2807 (15.0) | 1220 (13.4) |
| 2-3 | 16 665 (16.7) | 6073 (18.5) | 16 721 (18.1) | 26 365 (18.4) | 11 197 (18.2) | 3193 (17.0) | 1374 (15.1) |
| ≥5 | 56 574 (56.7) | 18 450 (56.2) | 54 101 (58.6) | 82 470 (57.5) | 33 814 (55.0) | 10 052 (53.6) | 4991 (54.8) |
| Alcohol drinking status, drink/wk | |||||||
| Never | 9704 (8.8) | 1487 (4.1) | 3813 (3.8) | 4307 (2.8) | 1772 (2.7) | 641 (3.1) | 372 (3.7) |
| Former | 6403 (5.8) | 1031 (2.9) | 2701 (2.7) | 3898 (2.5) | 2196 (3.3) | 921 (4.5) | 744 (7.4) |
| Current, <1 | 31 488 (28.5) | 8958 (24.8) | 22 138 (22.2) | 29 188 (18.9) | 13 388 (20.1) | 4958 (24.2) | 2883 (28.8) |
| Current, >1 to <7 | 24 656 (22.3) | 9605 (26.6) | 27 538 (27.6) | 40 333 (26.2) | 15 849 (23.8) | 4350 (21.2) | 1771 (17.7) |
| Current, 1 to 3 | 30 237 (27.4) | 12 134 (33.6) | 35 962 (36.0) | 62 989 (40.8) | 26 649 (40.1) | 7603 (37.1) | 3156 (31.5) |
| Current, >3 | 8028 (7.3) | 2898 (8.0) | 7668 (7.7) | 13 490 (8.7) | 6619 (10.0) | 2040 (9.9) | 1080 (10.8) |
| Education level | |||||||
| College or university degree | 29 355 (34.6) | 12 440 (41.1) | 33 169 (40.7) | 55 367 (42.7) | 21 949 (39.9) | 5732 (34.9) | 2524 (32.5) |
| A levels/AS levels or equivalent | 11 471 (13.5) | 4384 (14.5) | 11 216 (13.8) | 17 592 (13.6) | 7212 (13.1) | 2246 (13.7) | 1015 (13.1) |
| O levels/GCSEs or equivalent | 23 441 (27.7) | 7784 (25.7) | 20 795 (25.5) | 31 999 (24.7) | 14 060 (25.6) | 4505 (27.4) | 2138 (27.5) |
| CSEs or equivalent | 7245 (8.5) | 1663 (5.5) | 4656 (5.7) | 7347 (5.7) | 3688 (6.7) | 1353 (8.2) | 761 (9.8) |
| NVQ or HND or HNC equivalent | 7766 (9.2) | 2224 (7.4) | 6312 (7.7) | 9215 (7.1) | 4609 (8.4) | 1535 (9.3) | 830 (10.7) |
| Other professional qualifications | 5495 (6.5) | 1754 (5.8) | 5301 (6.5) | 8098 (6.2) | 3460 (6.3) | 1055 (6.4) | 504 (6.5) |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared); CSE, Certificate of Secondary Education; GCSE, General Certificate of Secondary Education; HNC, Higher National Certificate; HND, Higher National Diploma; IQR, interquartile range; NA, not applicable; NVQ, National Vocational Qualification; wCMSG2, weighted genetic caffeine metabolism score defined using 2 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (near AHR, CYP1A2); wCMSG4, weighted genetic caffeine metabolism score defined using 4 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (near AHR, CYP1A2, POR, CYP2A6).
a
Numbers may not sum to n = 498 134 owing to missing data, and percentages may not total 100% owing to rounding.
b
n = 403 816 included in the genetic analyses.
c
n = 7086 reported “other type of coffee”; n = 4571 had missing data.