Table 2.

The scaffolds made of graphene family materials and other synthetic or bio-polymers

Graphene family materials	Synthetic or bio-polymers	Fabrication methods	The improvement of physical or mechanical properties	Key results of experiments in vitro	Key results of experiments in vivo	Ref.
GO	PCL	Electrospinning process	Highly porous nature; an increase in tensile strength, elongation and Young’s modulus	Better biological characteristics with high cell viability		[80]
rGO	Macro–mesoporous bioactive glass (MBG); osteoblast-specific aptamer (AP)	Sol–gel method	Macroporous structure with fully interconnected open pores; excellent mechanical properties with a Young’s modulus of ~ 80 kPa	Accelerated the osteogenic differentiation of rat osteoblasts by up-regulating the mRNA expression level of four osteoblast markers sinificantly.	In the large bone defects of the rat femurs, the new bone appeared both peripherally and centrally in rGO-MBG-AP scaffold.	[160]
rGO	Polypyrrole (PPY); casein phosphopeptide (CPP)	Electrostatic self-assembly method	Excellent hydrophilic property and water uptake performance	Promoted the rapid formation of hydroxyapatite in the biomimetic mineralization; enhanced the adhesion, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells.		[161]
rGO	PPY; HA	Electrostatic layer-bylayer assembly strategy; biomimetic mineralization	Better mechanical property with desired configuration, high specific surface area and large surface roughness.	Enhanced MC3T3-E1 cells adhesion and proliferation.		[162]
GO	Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate)	Electrospinning technique	Reduced the fiber diameter and enhanced porosity, hydrophilicity and mechanical properties of the scaffolds.	Improved cellular performance, and osteogenic differentiation in vitro.	Promoted osteogenesis and rapidly increased bone volume even at an early stage.	[163]
GO	Cellulose acetate (CA); nanofibrous	Electrospinning technique	Increased the Young’s modulus of the nanofibers in a GO dose-dependent manner	Facilitated adhesion and proliferation of BMSCs on the scaffolds; accelerated biomineralization; induced osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs		[164]
Graphene oxide carboxymethylation (cGO)	HA; silk fibroin (SF)	Biomimetic mineralization and simply mix	Higher compressive strength and compressive modulus, respectively	Stimulated BMSCs adhesion and proliferation, ALP secretion and mineral deposition more strongly		[165]
rGO	Zinc silicate (ZS); calcium silicate	Two-step spin-coating method	Increased annealing temperature	Suppressed the receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB-ligand-induced osteoclastic differentiation of mouse leukemic monocyte macrophages		[166]
rGO	PDMS	Dipped and dried	Good mechanical strength and with pore sizes ranging from 10 to 600 um	Accelerated growth and differentiation of human adipose stem cells to an osteogenic cell lineage		[167]
GO	Nano-HA; collagen; PLGA	Freeze-drying method	Improved the hydrophilicity and reinforced their mechanical strength; increased Young’s modulus (10.20 ± 1.28 GPa)	Enhanced cell adhesion and proliferation of MC3T3-E1		[168]
GO	Gelatin hydroxyapatite matrix	Freeze-drying method	Less brittleness	Induced osteogenic differentiation of human adipose derived mesenchymal stem cells without chemical inducer		[169]
Pristine graphene	PCL	3D printing	Increased hydrophilicity of the surface	Enhanced cell viability and proliferation		[170]
GO multi-walled carbon nanotube oxides (MWCNTO)	Poly (d, l-lactic acid) (PDLLA)	MWCNTO-GO was prepared via oxygen plasma etching (OPE)	High mechanical performance (~ 600 MPa)	Allowed for MG-63 cells interactions and the formation of mineralized matrix significantly facilitated osteoblast ALP activity	Superior influence on bone cell activity, promoting greater new bone formation	[171]