TABLE 2.
Viral coinfections, detection, and outcomesa
| Confecting viruses | Outcome | Method(s) of detection | Remark(s) | Reference(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| DNV and CHIKV | Accommodation | Nucleic acid | CHIKV neither triggered nor suppressed DNV replication; mosquitoes with DNV infection were equally susceptible to infection by CHIKV | 145 |
| DNV and DENV | Interference/enhancement | Nucleic acid | Reduced DENV replication concomitant with increased DNV replication | 146, 147 |
| DNV and DENV | Accommodation | Nucleic acid | Persistent DENV and DNV coinfection | 148 |
| DNV, DENV, and JEV | Accommodation | Immunofluorescence | Stable infection of all three viruses without any CPE | 149 |
| CHIKV and JEV | NA | Antibody | Prevalence of antibodies against dual infection | 150 |
| IBV and avian pneumovirus | Interference | Viral titers, nucleic acid, antibody | IBV interfered with replication of pneumovirus vaccine strain in fowl | 151 |
| IBV and NDV | Interference | Viral titers, nucleic acid | IBV interfered with NDV replication | 152–162 |
| Sylvatic and endemic DENV strains | Interference | Viral titers | Primary virus suppressed secondary virus infection | 141 |
| NDV and HPAIV | Interference | Viral titers | NDV blocked HPAIV replication | 163 |
| WMV and ZYMV | Interference | Nucleic acid | ZYMV inhibited WMV replication | 164 |
| Henipavirus and rubulavirus | NA | Nucleic acid | Evidence of dual virus infection in bats | 165 |
| SINV and LACV | Interference | Viral titers | Replication of both viruses suppressed | 166 |
| SINV and LACV | Interference | Viral titers | LACV titers suppressed but no effect on SINV titers if SINV infection was 2 h before LACV infection | 166 |
| DENV2 and DENV4 | Interference | Viral titers | Suppression of both viruses but greater suppression of DENV2 | 142 |
| SINV, SFV and SINV, RRV | Exclusion | Viral titers | Persistently SINV-infected cells excluded superinfecting heterologous alphaviruses | 167 |
| SINV and YFV | Accommodation | Viral titers | Persistently SINV-infected cells did not impair YFV replication | 167 |
| CxFV and WNV | Enhancement | Viral titers/nucleic acid | Enhanced WNV transmission in mosquitoes | 168 |
| CxFV and WNV | Accommodation | Viral titers/nucleic acid | CxFV had no impact on WNV replication | 168 |
| IPNV and VHSV | Interference/accommodation | mRNA | Accommodation on coinfection and primary VHSV and secondary IPNV infection but interference on primary IPNV and secondary VHSV infection | 169 |
| NDV and LPAIV | Interference | Viral titers | Coinfection decreased LPAIV shedding and transmission but had no impact on clinical signs. | 170 |
| NDV and HPAIV | Interference | Viral titers | Coinfected ducks survived for shorter duration | 170 |
| HSV and VZV | Exclusion | Immunofluorescence | Exclusion of each other | 171 |
| BHV-1 gD and HSV-1/BHV-1/PRV | Interference | Viral titers | Expression of BHV-1 gD inhibited HSV-1, PRV, and BHV-1 replication | 172 |
| TTSuV1a and ASFV | NA | Nucleic acid | NA | 173 |
| hMPV and hRSV | NA | NA | Increased hospitalization rates in humans | 174 |
| HCV and TTV | NA | Nucleic acid (HMA) | NA | 120 |
| Fowlpox virus and ILTV | NA | Viral titers/nucleic acid | NA | 175 |
| WSSV and IIHNV | NA | Nucleic acid/histopathology | Increased mortality in Pacific white shrimp | 176 |
| Influenza A/H1N1 and A/H3N2 viruses | NA | Nucleotide sequencing | Demonstrated ability of these two influenza virus subtypes to coinfect humans and a potential risk of influenza virus reassortment | 177 |
| CIAV and IBDV | Interference/enhancement | Nucleic acid/cytofluorometric analysis | Enhanced CIAV titers in bursa and thymus but diminished IBDV-induced lymphocyte disorder | 178 |
| Cytopathic and noncytopathic BVDV | NA | Radioimmunoprecipitation/polypeptide profile | Induced different polypeptide profiles | 121 |
| Multiple coronaviruses (BtCoV HKU2, BtCoV HKU8, BtCoV HKU1, BtCoV HKU7, BtCoV HKU10) | NA | Nucleotide sequencing | Evidence of multiple coronavirus infections in bats (zoonoses) | 179 |
| SINV and DENV4 | Interference | Viral titers/nucleotide sequencing | SINV infection resisted DENV infection | 180 |
| ZIKV, CHIKV, and DENV | NA | Nucleic acid/antibody | Cross-reactivated antibodies against ZIKV/DENV may lead to misleading serological conclusions | 181 |
| CHIKV and DENV | NA | Nucleic acid/antibody | CHIKV and DNV were successfully purified by plaque purification and antibody neutralization, respectively | 26, 182–187 |
| DENV3 and CHIKV | Interference | Cell culture/nucleic acid | Interference depended on virus dose | 143 |
| DENV and CHIKV | NA | Antibody | NA | 188 |
| DENV1 and DENV3 | Interference | Antibody | Higher DENV3 prevalence | 189 |
| GPV and ORFV | NA | Nucleic acid | NA | 190 |
| Human adenovirus, human enterovirus, RSV, and human rhinovirus | NA | Nucleic acid | NA | 191 |
| HIV-1 and influenza virus | Enhancement | NA | High risk of influenza infection in HIV-1-infected individuals | 192 |
| PCV2 and CSFV | NA | NA | Induction of stress response and apoptotic signaling pathways | 193 |
| DENV and HIV-1 | NA | Nucleic acid | NA | 194 |
| DENV, CHIKV, and ZIKV | NA | Nucleic acid | Concurrent circulation of DENV, CHIKV, and ZIKV and their coinfection | 195 |
| PPRV and FMDV | Interference | Viral titers/nucleic acid | Reciprocal replicative suppression in BHK-21 and Vero cells, respectively | 14 |
| Aura virus, SFV, RRV, and flaviviruses | Interference | Viral titers/nucleic acid | Insect cells persistently infected with SINV resisted infection of both homologous (SINV) and heterologous (Aura virus, SFV, and RRV) alphaviruses but had no effect on flaviviruses | 167 |
| IAV and RSV | Interference | Viral titers/immunofluorescence | IAV competitively suppressed RSV at the level of viral protein synthesis and budding | 196 |
| IAV and hPIV2 | Enhancement | Viral titers/immunofluorescence | hPIV2 facilitated IAV replication | 197 |
| Wild-type and oseltamivir-resistant IAV strains | Interference | Viral titers/nucleotide sequencing | H3N2 and H1N1 differed in their ability to suppress replication and in transmissibility of the respective drug-resistant viral mutants | 198 |
| Swine influenza virus and PRRV | Interference | Viral titers/nucleic acid | Primary virus infection interfered with replication of the secondary virus | 199 |
| Group 1 and group 2 Brazilian vaccinia viruses | Interference/enhancement | Viral titers/nucleic acid | Higher titers in lungs, lower titers in spleen; greater disease severity in mice | 200 |
| HBV and HCV | Coexistence | Viral titers/nucleic acid | Coexistence in Huh-7 cells without any interference | 201 |
| WNV (different strains) | Interference | Viral titers | Block in transmission of superinfecting virus | 202 |
| WNV. SLEV | Interference | Viral titers/nucleic acid | Block in transmission of superinfecting virus | 203 |
| HBV and HCV | Enhanced disease severity | Antibody | HBV-exposed individuals experienced enhanced HCV-associated disease severity | 204 |
Abbreviations: ASFV, African swine fever virus; BHV, bovine herpesvirus; BVDV, bovine viral diarrhea virus; CHIKV, chikungunya virus; CIAV, chicken infectious anemia virus; CSFV, classical swine fever virus; CxFV, culex flavivirus; DENV, dengue virus; DNV, densovirus; FMDV, foot-and-mouth disease virus; GPV, goatpox virus; HCV, hepatitis virus; HDA, heteroduplex mobility analysis; HIV-1, human immunodeficiency virus type 1; HMA, heteroduplex mobility analysis; hMPV, human metapneumovirus; HPAIV, highly pathogenic avian influenza virus; hRSV, human respiratory syncytial virus; HPIV, human parainfluenza virus; HSV, herpes simplex virus; IBDV, infectious bursal disease virus; IBV, infectious bronchitis virus; IIHNV, infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus; ILTV, infectious laryngotracheitis virus; IAV, influenza A virus; IPNV, infectious pancreatic necrosis virus; JEV, Japanese encephalitis virus; LACV, La Crosse virus; LPAIV, low-pathogenic avian influenza virus; NDV, Newcastle disease virus; ORFV, Orf virus; PCV, porcine circo virus; PIV, parainfluenza virus; PPRV, peste des petits ruminants virus; PRV, pseudorabies virus; RRV, Ross River virus; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; SFV, Semliki Forest virus; SINV, Sindbis virus; SLEV, St. Louis encephalitis virus; TTSuV1a, torque teno sus virus strain 1; TTV, TT virus; VHSV, viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus; VZV, varicella-zoster virus; WMV, watermelon mosaic virus; WNV, West Nile virus; WSSV, white spot syndrome virus; YFV, yellow fever virus; ZIKV, Zika virus; ZYMV, zucchini yellow mosaic virus; NA, not applicable.