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Overview of CG-induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) in vitro. Cancer cells treated with CGs release the hallmarks of ICD, exhibiting the endoplasmic reticulum chaperon calreticulin (CRT) on the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, secreting ATP via an autophagy-dependent mechanism, and releasing high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) danger-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) in a mechanism dependent on Na+/K+-ATPase inhibition and cCa2+ increase [3].
