Table 1.

Summary of the protective effects of black chokeberry fruit in relation to chronic diseases.

Effect	Mechanism of Action	Study Model	Sources
Anti-inflammatory	Inhibition of release IL-6,IL-8,IL-10 TNF-α Activation NF-κB, cytokines, PGE2	Human monocytes, mouse macrophage cells, murine splenocytes	[102,104,105]
	Inhibition on nitric oxide production	Mouse macrophage	[102]
Antidiabetic	Reduction of gastric mucosal demage	Wister rat model	[22]
	Inhibition of α-glucosidase, lipase and amylase	In vitro model studies	[115,117]
	Modulation of multiple pathways associated with insulin signaling	Rats on fructose-rich diet, in vivo, in vitro studies	[118,119]
	Restoring of beta cells integrity	In vivo models	[116,120,121]
Cardioprotective	Lipid metabolism–decrease of cholesterol synthesis	Caco-2-cells	[125]
	-Inhibition of LDL oxidation, lipid peroxidation	Patients with metabolic syndrome	[20]
	-Increase activity of glutathione peroxidase and catalase, reduction of LDL cholesterol -Inhibition of platelet aggregation, protein carbonylation and thiol oxidation	Mens with hypercholesterolemia	[128]
	Anticoagulant, antithrombotic -Decrease in fibrin polymerization	Human plasma	[23,25,123]
	-Inhibition of platelet aggregation, protein carbonylation and thiol oxidation	Human plasma, purified fibrinogen	[95,120,129,130,131]
	Decrease blood pressure
	-inhibition of angiotensis I-converting enzyme ACE	Patients with metabolic syndrome	[135]
	Protection of coronary arteries
	Coronary vasoactive, vasoprotective effect	Caco-2-cells
	Decrease oxidative stress—stimulation of endothelial formation of NO	Porcine coronary arteries
Anticancer	Inhibition of oxidation	Caco-2-cells line	[138]
	Reduction of oxidative stress	Human granulocytes, HeLa cervical tumor line, murine leukemia cells, brest cancer patients	[94,98,130,139,141]
	Induction of apoptosis	Lymphoblastic leukemia Jurkat cell line	[141]
	Blockage at G1/G0 and G2/M phases of cell cycle	Human colon cancer	[142]