Fig. 3. Functions and consequences of cell debris formation during IAV infection.

a Dead cells and debris generated from IAV-infected cells may be taken up by DCs, where engulfed viral proteins may be cross-presented to IAV-specific CD8⁺ T cells. b Macrophages can efficiently phagocytose cell debris to remove infectious material. However, if engulfment is impaired apoptotic particles can lyse through secondary necrosis, releasing an abundance of DAMPs that can exacerbate inflammation and lung damage. c Whether apoptotic EVs also contribute to viral pathogenesis is unknown. However, it is possible that such EVs could transfer viral molecules and contribute to antigen presentation or viral propagation