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. 2018 Sep 26;16:262. doi: 10.1186/s12967-018-1635-z

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Molecular mechanisms of airway smooth muscle proliferation and hypertrophy in COPD. The proliferation and hypertrophy of ASM is mainly caused by the stimulation of inflammatory factors, the increase of intracellular calcium concentration, the antioxidant imbalance, and the accumulation of metabolic products