Table 1.

Therapeutic approaches targeted on ASM

ASM function changes	Type	Action mechanism	References
Contraction and relaxation	Anticholinergics	Inhibit the M2 and M3 subtypes of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors	[59]
	β2-adrenoceptor agonists	Stimulation of adenylyl cyclase and subsequent activation of the cAMP-dependent signaling	[60]
	Glucocorticoids	Reduce ASM contraction induced by histamine, bradykinin and acetylcholine	[61]
Proliferation and migration	KCa1.1 channels inhibitor	Suppressed phenotype shift to proliferation	[44]
	β2-adrenoceptor agonists	Blocked chemoattractants induced ASM migration	[62]
	Leukotriene receptor antagonists	Leukotriene B4 markedly induced proliferation of human ASM cells	[63]
	Antioxidant, glucocorticoids, ASK1 inhibitor	Inhibited TGF-β-induced ASM cell proliferation	[27, 64, 65]
	Leptin	Stimulating ASM to secrete prostaglandin E2	[56]
Secretion	Antioxidant	Inhibited CXCL8 release from ASM	[27]
		Reduced intracellular reactive oxygen production in ASM	[55]
	Vitamin D	Inhibits secretion of RANTES	[66]