Figure 1.

Streptomyces as potential sources for newer anti-MRSA compounds. To date, anti-MRSA compounds produced by Streptomyces have been isolated from various ecological sources that include terrestrial, marine, mangrove ecosystems and endophytes. Streptomyces are widely known for their ability to produce diverse range of antibiotic-like compounds. These compounds exert their anti-MRSA activity via different mode of actions, either by direct killing, synergistic or potentiator, anti-biofilm and anti-virulence properties. Recent advancement of technology, genetic and chemical modification, have facilitated production of antibiotics isolated from Streptomyces to form new chemical entities with improved anti-MRSA potency. These newly modified anti-MRSA compounds are further subjected to animal models-mice, silkworm and zebrafish, to validate their clinical efficacy prior to clinical trials. MRSA carry a mobile genetic element, Staphylococcal chromosomal cassette (SCCmec), that can be horizontally transferred from one bacteria to another. In addition to that, they are also capable of developing resistance mechanisms to non-β-lactam antibiotics, either via (i) Efflux of intracellular drug concentration (ii) Enzyme that inactivates drugs (iii) Altered drug target. Developing antibiotics that target these resistance mechanism, biofilm formation and virulence, would markedly reduce spread and infection of MRSA in hosts and animal products.