Table 1.
Summary of the concordance between the effect of treatment on mortality in randomized controlled trials and the association between non-randomized use of the same treatments and mortality in observational studies in HF
| Treatment | Randomized controlled trials | Observational studies |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Benefit | Neutral | Harm | ||
| HFrEF | ||||
| ACEI/ARB | Benefit | 5 | 2 | 0 |
| Beta-blocker | Benefit | 16 | 2 | 0 |
| MRA | Benefit | 1 | 10 | 1 |
| Statin | Neutral | 14 | 3 | 0 |
| Digoxin | Neutral | 1 | 4 | 5 |
| HFpEF | ||||
| ACEI/ARB | Neutral | 5 | 7 | 0 |
| Beta-blocker | Neutral | 9 | 4 | 0 |
| MRA | Neutral | 1 | 2 | 0 |
| Statin | — | — | — | — |
| Digoxin | Neutral | 1 | 3 | 0 |
| Mixed/unspecified HF phenotype | ||||
| ACEI/ARB | Neutral | 8 | 2 | 0 |
| Beta-blocker | Neutral | 17 | 2 | 0 |
| MRA | — | 2 | 3 | 0 |
| Statin | Neutral | 11 | 1 | 0 |
| Digoxin | Neutral | 2 | 7 | 7 |
ACEI, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; HF, heart failure; HFpEF, heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; HFrEF, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; MRA, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist.