Table 3.

Effects of bitter tastants in clinical studies.

Authors	Subjects	Bitter tastants and doses	Main method	Key observation
(67)	healthy women (n = 16)	10 mg quinine sulfate	Sham feeding	Slowed gastric emptying substantially.
(68)	healthy volunteers (n = 12)	0.198 mM 500 ml quinine (3.24 mg)	Intragastric administration	Had no effect on gastric emptying.
(62)	healthy volunteers (n = 20)	18 mg HCl quinine	encapsulated	Suppressed energy intake; increased CCK secretion; had no effect on gastric emptying.
(60)	healthy volunteers (n = 20)	100 mg extracts (from Gentiana lutea root)	encapsulated	Increased GLP-1; suppressed energy intake; had no effect on blood glucose.
(57)	healthy women (n = 39)	1 μmol/kg DB	Intragastric administration	Had no effect on gastric emptying; reduced hungry rating and increased satiety ratings.
(63)	healthy women (n = 10)	10 μmol/kg HCl quinine	Intragastric administration	Reduced plasma motilin and ghrelin levels; inhibited the antral motility.
(22)	healthy women (n = 16)	10 μmol/kg HCl quinine	Intragastric administration	Suppressed energy intake; reduced plasma motilin and ghrelin levels; reduced hungry ratings and increased satiety ratings.