Table 2.
Descriptive analyses, Cohen's d, and confidence intervals (95% CI) and ANCOVA models adjusted for NV cognition on dependent measures for males and females with DS compared to CA-matched males with FXS.
| Groups: | Down syndrome (males and females) | Fragile X syndrome (males) | Cohen's-d a (p-value, q-value) | 95% CI | Adjusted for NV cognition | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean (SD) | Range (min-max) | n | Mean (SD) | Range (min-max) | n | |||||||
| Chronological Age | 12.7 (1.81) | 10–16 | 30 | 12.8 (1.78) | 10–16 | 39 | 0.089 | [−0.4, 0.57] | Covariate-adjusted Mean | |||
| NV Cognition | p-value (q-value) | F | DS | FXS | ||||||||
| Leiter-R GS | 461.96 (7.4) | 442–474 | 291 | 466.89 (9.97) | 446–490 | 372 | −0.55 (0.030, 0.046) | [−1.04,−0.05] | ||||
| Social Cognition | ||||||||||||
| False belief understanding (FBT) | 0.14 (0.18) | 0–0.75 | 291 | 0.25 (0.27) | 0–1 | 372 | −0.48 (0.06, –) | [−0.97, 0.02] | 0.66 | 0.2 | 0.20b | 0.23b |
| Receptive Structural Language | ||||||||||||
| Receptive grammar (TROG) | 2.4 (1.63) | 0–6 | 30 | 4.07 (3.67) | 0–15 | 381 | −0.57 (0.023, 0.045) | [−1.05, −0.07] | 0.59 | 0.29 | 3.37b | 3.70b |
| Receptive vocabulary (PPVT) | 64.93 (23.06) | 8–107 | 30 | 86.13 (31.12) | 55–156 | 381 | −0.76 (0.003, 0.012) | [−1.25, −0.26] | 0.10 | 2.89 | 76.09b | 85.04b |
| Expressive Structural Language | ||||||||||||
| Expressive vocabulary (EVT) | 44.7 (13.5) | 0–74 | 291 | 56.49 (19.48) | 34–103 | 372 | −0.69 (0.007, 0.02) | [−1.18, −0.18] | 0.23 | 1.5 | 51.08b | 55.05b |
| Syntax construction (CASL-SC) | 6.31 (6.39) | 0–26 | 291 | 13.48 (9.98) | 0–36 | 354 | −0.84 (0.001, 0.005) | [−1.34, −0.32] | 0.10 | 2.79 | 9.34b | 12.45b |
| Talkativeness (ELS) | 12.47 (3.46) | 7–19.9 | 273 | 12.77 (3.52) | 6.5–20.20 | 345 | −0.09 (0.75, –) | [−0.59, 0.42] | 0.44 | 0.61 | 12.44b | 11.66b |
| Unintelligibility (ELS) | 16 (11.84) | 0–57 | 273 | 11.97 (8.84) | 0–24.26 | 345 | 0.39 (0.14, –) | [−0.12, 0.99] | 0.31 | 1.06 | 15.81b | 12.46b |
| Dysfluency (ELS) | 22.73 (16.5) | 0.95–66 | 273 | 20.10 (12.74) | 1.54–44.62 | 345 | 0.18 (0.48, –) | [−0.33, 0.69] | 0.05 (—) | 3.9 | 25.10b | 16.80b |
| Lexical diversity (ELS) | 72.29 (29.15) | 0–123 | 273 | 89.85 (30.57) | 59–157 | 345 | −0.59 (0.027, 0.045) | [−1.09,−0.06] | 0.52 | 0.42 | 77.22b | 82.80b |
| Syntactic complexity (ELS) | 3.42 (1.18) | 1.84–5.89 | 273 | 4.22 (1.49) | 2.45–8.24 | 345 | −0.59 (0.026, 0.045) | [−1.10, −0.07] | 0.69 | 0.16 | 3.71b | 3.85b |
| Pragmatic Skills (CCC-2) | ||||||||||||
| Less inappropriate initiation | 5.27 (2.13) | 2–9 | 264 | 3.94 (2.21) | 0–8 | 336 | 0.61(0.023, 0.045) | [0.08, 1.13] | 0.21 | 1.61 | 5.10b | 4.26b |
| Less stereotyped language | 5.12 (2.26) | 1–12 | 264 | 3.33 (2.33) | 0–7 | 336 | 0.77 (0.005, 0.017) | [0.23, 1.30] | <0.01 (0.02) | 8.19 | 5.32b | 3.29b |
| Proper use of context | 1.27 (1.51) | 0–6 | 264 | 1.82 (2.19) | 0–8 | 336 | −0.29 (0.3, –) | [−0.80, 0.23] | 0.25 | 1.35 | 1.30b | 1.99b |
| NV communication | 3.81 (1.83) | 1– 8 | 264 | 2.73 (1.51) | 0–5 | 336 | 0.65(0.016, 0.04) | [0.12, 1.17] | 0.05 (—) | 3.8 | 3.77b | 2.87b |
| Behavioral Problems (CBCL/6-18) | ||||||||||||
| Withdrawn behaviors | 58.73 (6.54) | 50–73 | 30 | 62.58 (8.07) | 50–79 | 381 | −0.52 (0.038, –) | [−1.00, −0.02] | <0.01 (0.01) | 10.1 | 56.54b | 63.27b |
| Anxious symptoms | 52.93 (4.67) | 50–67 | 30 | 60.89 (8.22) | 50–83 | 381 | -1.16 (<0.001,<0.001) | [−1.66, −0.63] | <0.001(<0.001) | 19.19 | 52.29b | 60.31b |
| Social problems | 59.56 (4.56) | 50–69 | 30 | 63 (7.68) | 51–83 | 381 | −0.53 (0.034, 0.049) | [−1.01, −0.04] | 0.19 | 1.75 | 59.71b | 62.31b |
| Thought problems | 60.1 (7.42) | 50–75 | 30 | 66.65 (8.07) | 50–77 | 381 | −0.84 (0.001, 0.005) | [−1.33, −0.33] | <0.01 (0.006) | 12.20 | 58.69b | 66.52b |
| Attention problems | 58.06 (5.01) | 51–73 | 30 | 65.65 (8.5) | 50–92 | 381 | −1.06 (<0.001,<0.001) | [−1.56, −0.54] | <0.01 (0.006) | 11.94 | 57.95b | 65.90b |
NV, nonverbal; SD, standard deviation; n, number of participants; d, differences; CI, confidence interval; F, Fisher-Snedecor quotient; GS, growth score; FBT, False Belief Task; TROG, Test for Reception of Grammar; PPVT, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; EVT, Expressive Vocabulary Test; CASL-SC, Syntax Construction Test from the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language; ELS Expressive Language Sample; CCC-2, Children's Communication Checklist, CBCL, Child Behavior Checklist;
1 missing value,
2 missing values„
3 missing values,
missing value,
5 missing values„
6 missing values
Cohen's effect size. Large differences (effect size differences larger than 1 pooled standard deviation (|d| > 1); Substantial differences (|d| > 0.7); Medium differences (|d| > 0.5); Mild/small differences (|d| > 0.3),
Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at Leiter-R GS = 465.12 value (the mean). Note: q-values represent p-values after controlling for multiple comparisons according to FDR procedure, we only reported significant q-values, otherwise this symbol (—) is included as a sign of not passing the FDR criterion. Significant results after controlling for multiple comparisons according to FDR procedure are bolded in the table.