Table 3.
Descriptive analyses, Cohen's d, and confidence intervals (95% CI) for cognitive, linguistic, social-cognitive, and behavioral performance of males with DS compared to females with DS matched on CA and NV cognition.
| Groups: | Down syndrome (males) | Down syndrome (females) | Cohen's-da (p-value, q-value) | 95% CI | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean (SD) | Range (min-max) | n | Mean (SD) | Range (min-max) | n | |||
| Chronological Age | 12.7(1.98) | 10–16 | 20 | 12.7 (1.5) | 10–14 | 10 | 0.01 | [−0.78, 0.79] |
| NV Cognition | ||||||||
| Leiter-R GS | 460.32 (7.20) | 442–474 | 191 | 465.1 (7.11) | 450–474 | 10 | −0.66 (0.1, –) | [−0.14, 1.43] |
| Social Cognition | ||||||||
| False belief understanding (FBT) | 0.11 (0.14) | 0–0.5 | 191 | 0.2 (0.22) | 0–0.75 | 10 | −0.51 (0.3, –) | [−1.27, 0.28] |
| Receptive Structural Language | ||||||||
| Receptive grammar (TROG) | 2.05 (1.57) | 0–6 | 20 | 3.10 (1.6) | 1–5 | 10 | −0.66 (0.1, –) | [−1.42, 0.13] |
| Receptive vocabulary (PPVT) | 59.40 (24.07) | 8–98 | 20 | 76 (16.93) | 43–107 | 10 | −0.75 (0.06, –) | [−1.51, 0.49] |
| Expressive Structural Language | ||||||||
| Expressive vocabulary (EVT) | 40.11 (12.97) | 0–72 | 191 | 53.4 (10.1) | 42–74 | 10 | −1.10 (0.009, 0.034) | [−1.88, −0.26] |
| Syntax construction (CASL-SC) | 3.79 (3.44) | 0–16 | 191 | 11.1 (8.03) | 1–26 | 10 | −1.35 (0.002, 0.013) | [−2.15, −0.47] |
| Talkativeness (ELS) | 12.95 (3.57) | 6.9–17.9 | 173 | 11.66 (3.3) | 7.5–17.6 | 10 | 0.37 (0.4, –) | [−0.43, 1.15] |
| Unintelligibility (ELS) | 20.44 (11.99) | 8.57–57 | 173 | 8.42 (6.97) | 0–22.67 | 10 | 1.15 (0.008, 0.034) | [0.28, 1.95] |
| Dysfluency (ELS) | 21.27 (17.87) | 0.95–66 | 173 | 25.23 (14.43) | 1.12–53.71 | 10 | −0.24 (0.6, –) | [−1.01, 0.55] |
| Lexical diversity (ELS) | 60.06 (21.91) | 0–90 | 173 | 93.1 (28.93) | 36–123 | 10 | −1.34 (0.002, 0.013) | [−2.15, −0.44] |
| Syntactic complexity (ELS) | 2.87 (0.77) | 1.84-4.32 | 173 | 4.35 (1.2) | 2.34–5.89 | 10 | −1.55 (0.001, 0.013) | [−2.39, −0.63] |
| Pragmatic Skills (CCC-2) | ||||||||
| Less inappropriate initiation | 5.53 (1.97) | 2–8 | 173 | 4.78 (2.44) | 2–9 | 91 | 0.35 (0.4, –) | [−0.47, 1.53] |
| Less stereotyped language | 5.24 (2.41) | 1–22 | 173 | 4.89 (2.09) | 3–8 | 91 | 0.15 (0.7, –) | [−0.66, 0.96] |
| Proper use of context | 1.35 (1.54) | 0–6 | 173 | 1.11 (1.54) | 0–4 | 91 | 0.16 (0.5, –) | [−0.66, 0.96] |
| NV communication | 4 (2.12) | 0–8 | 173 | 3.44 (1.13) | 2–5 | 91 | 0.30 (0.2, –) | [−0.52, 1.1] |
| Behavioral Problems (CBCL) | ||||||||
| Withdrawn behaviors | 59.9 (7.12) | 50–73 | 20 | 56.4 (4.67) | 50–63 | 10 | 0.54 (0.2,–) | [−0.24, 1.3] |
| Anxious symptoms | 53.8 (5.36) | 50–67 | 20 | 51.2 (2.15) | 50–57 | 10 | 0.57 (0.2, –) | [−0.22, 1.32] |
| Social problems | 59.4 (4.73) | 50–69 | 20 | 59.9 (4.43) | 54–67 | 10 | −0.11(0.8, –) | [−0.86, 0.65] |
| Thought problems | 59.7 (7.95) | 50–75 | 20 | 60.9 (6.52) | 51–73 | 10 | −0.16 (0.7, –) | [−0.92, 0.6] |
| Attention problems | 57.7 (4.37) | 51–64 | 20 | 58.8 (6.3) | 52–73 | 10 | −0.22 (0.6, –) | [−0.97, 0.55] |
NV, nonverbal; SD, standard deviation, n, number of participants; d, differences; CI, confidence interval; GS, growth score; FBT, False Belief Task; TROG, Test for Reception of Grammar; PPVT, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; EVT, Expressive Vocabulary Test; CASL-SC, Syntax Construction Test from the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language; ELS Expressive Language Sample; CCC-2, Children's Communication Checklist; CBCL, Child Behavior Checklist;
1 missing value,
3 missing values;
Cohen's effect size. Large differences (effect size differences larger than 1 pooled standard deviation (|d| > 1); Substantial differences (|d| > 0.7); Medium differences (|d| > 0.5); Mild/small differences (|d| > 0.3). Note: q-values represent p-values after controlling for multiple comparisons according to FDR procedure. We only reported those q-values that were significant after controlling for FDR, otherwise this symbol (—) is included as a sign of not passing the FDR test. Significant results after controlling by FDR procedure are bolded in the table.