Table 2.

Adjusted percent difference in glucose and insulin homeostasis markers per one standard deviation increase in serum γ-glutamyl transferase or alanine aminotransferase concentrations from early to mid-pregnancy^a.

Liver enzymes	Glucose and insulin homeostasis markers	All (n = 349)		GDM cases (n = 117)		Non-GDM controls (n = 232)
		β (95% CI)	P	β (95% CI)	P	β (95% CI)	P
GGT (U/L)b	Glucose (mg/dL)	1.51 (0.56, 2.46)	0.002	2.23 (0.48, 3.99)	0.013	0.56 (−0.62, 1.74)	0.349
	Insulin (μU/mL)	8.36 (2.11, 14.61)	0.009	11.35 (2.21, 20.49)	0.015	5.56 (−3.51, 14.64)	0.228
	HOMA2-β	2.17 (−1.34, 5.68)	0.224	2.80 (−2.00, 7.59)	0.250	2.11 (−3.11, 7.321)	0.427
	HOMA2-IR	7.43 (1.76, 13.11)	0.010	9.84 (2.05, 17.62)	0.014	5.03 (−3.43, 13.48)	0.243
	Adiponectin (ng/mL)	−2.86 (−5.53, −0.20)	0.035	−3.90 (−7.81, −0.01)	0.048	−0.48 (−2.74, 1.77)	0.673
ALT (U/L)c	Glucose (mg/dL)	−0.02 (−0.86, 0.82)	0.958	−0.20 (−1.81, 1.41)	0.806	0.32 (−0.63, 1.27)	0.508
	Insulin (μU/mL)	1.82 (−3.58, 7.23)	0.508	1.72 (−7.10, 10.53)	0.701	1.58 (−5.50, 8.67)	0.660
	HOMA2-β	1.21 (−1.68, 4.10)	0.411	2.31 (−1.80, 6.42)	0.268	0.16 (−3.85, 4.16)	0.938
	HOMA2-IR	2.23 (−2.62, 7.08)	0.367	3.01 (−4.39, 10.42)	0.422	1.26 (−5.30, 7.83)	0.705
	Adiponectin (ng/mL)	−0.56 (−2.16, 1.04)	0.491	−0.52 (−2.84, 1.79)	0.655	−0.48 (−2.74, 1.77)	0.673

ALT, alanine aminotransferase; GGT, γ-glutamyl transferase; HOMA2-β, updated homeostatic model assessment of β-cell function; HOMA2-IR, updated homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance.

^aRepeated measures analysis was adjusted for age, race/ethnicity, gestational week at blood collection, family history of diabetes, pre-gestational hypertension, alcohol use before and/or during pregnancy, pre-pregnancy body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, and gestational diabetes (not in the stratified analysis).

^bStandard deviation of GGT: 9.2 U/L.

^cStandard deviation of ALT: 8.4U/L.