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. 2018 Oct 9;9:4169. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-06473-x

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Effects of non-EBF vs. EBF on gut microbiota age in infants ≤6 months of age. a Gut (standardized) microbiota age of infants ≤6 months of age by breastfeeding status by age of infants at stool sample collection from each of seven included studies. Fitted lines and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were from generalized additive mixed models (GAMM). b The difference in gut (standardized) microbiota age between non-exclusively breastfed (non-EBF) and EBF infants ≤6 months of age from each study and the pooled effect across seven included studies (meta-analysis) with 95% CI. c The trend of gut (standardized) microbiota age across EBF, non-EBF, and non-BF infants ≤6 months of age from each study and the pooled effect across five included studies (meta-analysis) with 95% CI. The Haiti and South Africa studies were not included, as there was no non-BF group in these two studies. In each study, to test for trend across breastfeeding categories, breastfeeding was coded as a continuous variable in the model (EBF = 1, non-EBF = 2, and non-BF = 3). Estimates for (standardized) microbiota age difference or trend and corresponding standard error from each study were from linear mixed-effect models (for longitudinal data) or linear models (for non-longitudinal data) and were adjusted for age of infants at sample collection. EBF exclusive breastfeeding, non-EBF non-exclusive breastfeeding, non-BF no breastfeeding, USA United States of America, CA California, FL Florida, MA Massachusetts, MO Missouri, NC North Carolina, MD microbiota age difference, SE standard error