Table 5.

Cognitive function, physical function, and perceived benefits of Tai Chi exercise compared to normative reference values (mean ± SD).

	Normative reference valuea	Sample results	t or z value	Effect size	Interpretation
Cognitive measures
Delayed three-word recall (errors)	0.41 ± 0.75	0.17 ± 0.50	z = −2.44*	r = 0.09	Fewer errors on word recall
DSBb	5.34 ± 0.96	5.02 ± 1.30	z = −1.93	NA	No statistically significant difference
DSFb	7.06 ± 1.02	7.53 ± 1.17	z = 2.02*	NA	Better immediate serial recall
DST	43.79 ± 8.18	54.74 ± 4.80	t = 17.55**	d = 1.63	Better visual scanning, selective attention, working memory
Maze Test	39.18 ± 16.92	35.21 ± 12.30	t = −2.45*	d = 0.27	Faster planning, attention, forethought
UFOV	206 ± 122	147.88 ± 92.13	z = −3.62**	r = 0.15	Faster speed of processing times and divided attention
VMIb	4.07 ± 2.50	1.84 ± 1.60	z = −5.30**	r = 0.19	Fewer errors: better information processing, inference, outcome prediction, visual perceptual ability
VSA	45.19 ± 24.98	36.17 ± 11.93	z = −4.63*	r = 0.17	Better visual search and attention
VSB	95.50 ± 50.78	98.90 ± 29.21	z = 0.32	NA	No statistically significant difference
Physical measures
Head and neck flexibilityc	77% pass	28% pass	z = −5.04*	NA	Poorer head and neck flexibility than normative reference
Rapid Walk Test	6.77 ± 1.90	5.96 ± 1.08	z = −3.25**	r = 0.20	Better lower limb strength and general mobility
RFTT	6.12 ± 1.87	3.63 ± 0.70	z = −6.31**	r = 0.35	Better lower extremity control, flexibility, and proprioception
Perceived benefits of Tai Chi exercise
MAAS	4.20 ± 0.69	4.70 ± 0.64d	t = 5.97**	d = 0.75	Better dispositional mindfulness and attention
VPS	35 ± 7	37.52 ± 5.80e	t = 3.21*	d = 0.38	Better overall well-being

Abbreviations: DSB = digit span backward; DSF = digit span forward; DST = Driving Scenes Test; MAAS = Mindful Attention Awareness Scale; NA = not applicable or not available; RFTT = Right Foot Tapping Test; UFOV = Useful Field of View Test; VMI = Visualizing Missing Information; VPS = Vitality Plus Scale; VSA = visual search–A; VSB = visual search–B.

^aSee Table 1 for sources of normative reference values.

^bMedian test.

^cBinomial test.

^dCronbach's α = 0.87.

^eCronbach's α = 0.78.

^*p < 0.05;

^**p < 0.01.