TABLE 1.
Descriptive characteristics for 220 pregnant women and their households in Mukono, Uganda1
| Characteristic | Mean ± SD or n (%) |
|---|---|
| Enrollment characteristics | |
| Age, y | 23.9 ± 4.3 |
| Gestation at enrollment, wk | 17.8 ± 3.5 |
| Weight, kg | 60.7 ± 9.8 |
| Height, cm | 158.5 ± 6.1 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 24.1 ± 3.5 |
| MUAC, cm | 27.1 ± 3.4 |
| Hb, g/dL | 11.9 ± 1.4 |
| Anemic (Hb < 12 g/dL) | 104 (47.3) |
| Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 109.8 ± 11.3 |
| Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg | 72.7 ± 8.3 |
| First pregnancy, yes | 87 (39.6) |
| Household head, yes | 9 (4.1) |
| Household members | 3.5 ± 2.1 |
| Marital status | |
| Married/cohabitating, monogamous | 191 (86.8) |
| Married/cohabitating, polygamous | 18 (8.2) |
| Single | 11 (5.0) |
| Employed, yes | 100 (45.5) |
| Education, y | 9.9 ± 2.9 |
| HFIAS | |
| Food secure | 56 (25.5) |
| Mildly food insecure | 62 (28.2) |
| Moderately food insecure | 86 (39.1) |
| Severely food insecure | 16 (7.3) |
| Pregnancy characteristics | |
| Antenatal visits | 3.5 (0.8) |
| Weight change, g/wk | 292.7 ± 187.2 |
| Safe water, yes | 94 (42.7) |
| Water source | |
| Piped water | 12 (5.5) |
| Protected well/spring | 40 (18.2) |
| Tube well/borehole | 156 (70.9) |
| Rainwater | 4 (1.8) |
| Unprotected well/spring | 6 (2.7) |
| Surface water | 2 (0.9) |
| Toilet type | |
| Flush toilet | 8 (3.6) |
| Improved pit latrine | 115 (52.3) |
| Unimproved pit latrine | 97 (44.1) |
| Iron supplementation, d | 47.9 (26.5) |
| IPT, courses | 2.3 ± 1.1 |
| Deworming medication, yes | 139 (63.2) |
| Second-hand tobacco exposure, yes | 20 (9.1) |
| EED biomarkers | |
| L:M test | |
| Urine volume, mL | 250.60 ± 234.13 |
| L:M ratio | 0.09 ± 0.10 |
| Urinary lactulose, % dose excreted | 0.52 ± 0.77 |
| Urinary mannitol, % dose excreted | 18.23 ± 16.40 |
| Serum markers (OD) | |
| Anti-flagellin IgA | 1.61 ± 0.68 |
| Anti-LPS IgA | 1.48 ± 0.55 |
| Anti-flagellin IgG | 1.15 ± 0.30 |
| Anti-LPS IgG | 1.81 ± 0.60 |
1
EED, environmental enteric dysfunction; Hb, hemoglobin; HFIAS, Household Food Insecurity Access Scale; IPT, intermittent preventive treatment (i.e., sulfadoxine pyrimethamine) for malaria; L:M, lactulose:mannitol; MUAC, midupper arm circumference; OD, optical density.