Table 2.
Factors associated with uncontrolled hypertension in rural Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka
| Characteristics | Basic models Odds ratio (95% CI) (P) |
Multivariable model Odds ratio (95% CI) (p) |
|---|---|---|
| Demographic characteristics | ||
| Educated (Ref: No formal education) | 1.12 (0.86, 1.46) (0.385) | 1.16 (0.86, 1.55) (0.335) |
| Working (Ref: Not working) | 1.04 (0.79, 1.38) (0.784) | 0.93 (0.68, 1.26) (0.637) |
| Not married (Ref: Married) | 1.41 (1.10, 1.82) (0.007) | 1.46 (1.10, 1.93) (0.008) |
| Anthropometric characteristics | ||
| Obese/overweight (Ref: Nonobese) | 1.19 (0.96, 1.47) (0.116) | 1.11 (0.83, 1.49) (0.495) |
| Waist circumference (per 1 SD increase) | 1.10 (0.99, 1.23) (0.071) | 1.07 (0.92, 1.25) (0.397) |
| Life-style characteristics | ||
| Current smoker (Ref: Nonsmoker) | 0.99 (0.65, 1.50) (0.948) | 1.00 (0.62, 1.59) (0.989) |
| Physical activity level (Ref: Inactive) | (0.527) | (0.440) |
| Minimally active | 0.87 (0.68, 1.11) (0.261) | 0.84 (0.64, 1.10) (0.207) |
| Highly active | 0.92 (0.66, 1.28) (0.618) | 0.91 (0.63, 1.30) (0.596) |
| Food-intake and 24-hrs urine sodium excretion | ||
| Vegetables intake at least once per week (Ref: Less than once per week) | 1.01 (0.62, 1.63) (0.980) | 0.87 (0.52, 1.46) (0.589) |
| Fruits intake at least once per week (Ref: Less than once per week) | 1.00 (0.81, 1.22) (0.983) | 0.96 (0.77, 1.21) (0.756) |
| 24-hrs sodium level (per 1 SD increase) | 1.02 (0.91, 1.15) (0.675) | 1.02 (0.90, 1.15) (0.807) |
| Socioeconomic characteristic | ||
| International wealth index (per 1 SD decrease) | 1.13 (1.00, 1.28) (0.045) | 1.17 (1.02, 1.35) (0.028) |
| Self-reported health characteristics | ||
| Chronic diseases related to hypertension (Ref.: Not reported) | 0.68 (0.54, 0.84) (<0.001) | 0.73 (0.57, 0.92) (0.009) |
| Heart disease (Ref: Not reported) | 0.71 (0.54, 0.92) (0.010) | 0.85 (0.63, 1.14) (0.282) |
| Stroke (Ref: Not reported) | 0.84 (0.63, 1.12) (0.235) | 0.88 (0.64, 1.20) (0.405) |
| Kidney disease (Ref: Not reported) | 0.76 (0.45, 1.28) (0.299) | 0.51 (0.28, 0.91) (0.023) |
| Diabetes (Ref.: Not reported) | 1.20 (0.96, 1.51) (0.111) | 1.06 (0.79, 1.43) (0.702) |
| Laboratory parameters | ||
| Loge urine spot albumin-to-creatinine ratio (per 1 SD increase) | 1.40 (1.24, 1.57) (<0.001) | 1.41 (1.24, 1.60) (<0.001) |
| Fasting plasma glucose level (per 1 SD increase) | 1.26 (1.11, 1.42) (<0.001) | 1.16 (0.99, 1.35) (0.068) |
| eGFR (per 1SD decrease) | 1.20 (1.01, 1.43) (0.040) | 1.23 (1.01, 1.49) (0.040) |
| HDL cholesterol level (per 1 SD increase) | 1.12 (0.97, 1.28) (0.116) | 1.04 (0.88, 1.22) (0.672) |
| LDL cholesterol level (per 1 SD increase) | 1.22 (1.09, 1.36) (0.001) | 1.14 (1.00, 1.30) (0.058) |
| Triglycerides level (per 1 SD increase) | 1.05 (0.94, 1.17) (0.406) | 0.97 (0.86, 1.10) (0.652) |
| Medication adherence | ||
| Adherence level of antihypertensive medications (Ref: High) | (<0.001) | (0.003) |
| Medium | 1.08 (0.84, 1.41) (0.544) | 1.03 (0.77, 1.36) (0.862) |
| Low | 1.54 (1.22, 1.95) (<0.001) | 1.50 (1.16, 1.94) (0.002) |
| Currently on statins (Ref: Not currently on statin) | 0.52 (0.39, 0.69) (<0.001) | 0.62 (0.44, 0.87) (0.005) |
| Other characteristics | ||
| Age (per 1 SD increase) | 1.06 (0.96, 1.18) (0.268) | 0.92 (0.78, 1.07) (0.275) |
| Male (Ref: Female) | 0.84 (0.68, 1.04) (0.103) | 1.06 (0.77, 1.46) (0.736) |
| Country (Ref: Sri Lanka) | (<0.001) | (<0.001) |
| Bangladesh | 0.91 (0.62, 1.33) (0.637) | 1.00 (0.61, 1.65) (0.994) |
| Pakistan | 2.11 (1.38, 3.23) (0.001) | 2.91 (1.60, 5.28) (<0.001) |
Participant characteristics are defined in the methods section. Waist circumference, 24-hour sodium level, wealth index, Log urine spot albumin-to-creatinine ratio, fasting plasma glucose level, eGFR, HDL cholesterol level, LDL cholesterol level, triglycerides level, and age are presented as z-score standardized for mean and standard deviation.
P-values in bold represent joint-significance of all the categories using the Wald’s test. Each basic model was adjusted for country, age, and gender. Detailed description of the basic and multivariable models is provided in the methods section.
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; Ref, reference; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein.