Table 1.

Summary of potential causes of damages, nature of the incurred damage, and solutions to minimize the damage in chronological order of implantation *.

Stage	Before Implantation	During Implantation	Post-Implant (<1 Week)	Post-Implant (>1 Week)
In vivo procedure	Acute			Chronic
Schematic view
Potential causes of damage	Drilling of skull	Impact of insertion Mechanical vibration during implantation	Micromotion	Micromotion Macromotion Strain from cable attachment Corrosion
Induced effects	Undesired excision of brain tissue Contamination of electrode surface due to bleeding	Cell death Hemorrhage and edema Blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption On-set of inflammation	Acute inflammatory response BBB disruption Unstable electrode-tissue interface	Chronic foreign body response BBB disruption Encapsulation (kill zone)
Results	No detection Low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)	Larger dead zone	Unstable impedance and recording	Low SNR No detection
Proposed solutions	Mastery of surgery	Optimization of probe dimension Optimization of insertion speed Pneumatic insertion	Biocompatible coating Anti-inflammatory coating BBB modulation	Flexible substrate Drug coating BBB modulation Rejuvenation Wireless transmission

* Reproduced with permission from Szarowski et al. [75]. A scale bar of 100 μm.