Table 3.

Clinical data on red ginseng as a health functional food

Samples	Design	Participants	Daily intake/intake duration	Results	References
Red ginseng powder	Random (no placebo)	36 stomach cancer patients and 36 colorectal cancer patients	4.5 g/6 months	-The number of suppressor/cytotoxic cells, helper/inducer cells, NK cells, activated T cells, and B cells in the red ginseng group increased significantly in the red ginseng group	[36]
Red ginseng extract	Random (no placebo)	25 healthy individuals and 50 stomach cancer patients	3 g/3 months	-IL-2 and decrease rate of IL-10 were higher in the red ginseng group than in the control group	[37]
Red ginseng extract	Random (no placebo)	47 colorectal cancer patients	3 g/3 months	-IL-2, IL-8, and IL-10 activity was regulated in the red ginseng group than in the control group	[38]
Red ginseng powder	Case study	12,295 common cold patients	No dose	-The ratio of those who caught the common cold was significantly lower in the red ginseng group.	[39]
Red ginseng powder	Random, double-blind, placebo-controlled study1)	24 male college students	2.5-4 g/3 weeks	-The red ginseng group significantly recovered CK and GOT activity and the range of motion of related joints	[43]
Red ginseng extract	Placebo-controlled study	24 students majoring in physical education	3 g/8 weeks	-Red ginseng intake did not affect the ability to perform aerobic or anaerobic exercise. -O2 max, %VO2/VO2 max, and plasma BCAA and blood lactic acid tended to decrease.	[44]
Red ginseng extract	Random, double-blind, placebo-controlled study	18 healthy men	60 g/11 days	-The red ginseng group decreased in blood CK, IL-6, insulin, and blood glucose.	[45]
Red ginseng extract	Random, double-blind, control study	87 healthy men and women aged 20-59 years	1.5 g, 3 g/8 weeks	-Suppression of platelet aggregation due to ADP and collagen inducement -No significant differences in blood coagulation (APTT and PT) and lipids	[52]
Red ginseng products	Case study	10 red ginseng product takers and 7 non-red ginseng product takers	1.6 g/4-5 years	-Collagen-induced platelet aggregation was suppressed in the red ginseng group—APTT was significantly extended in the red ginseng group.	[53]
Red ginseng extract	Random, double-blind, control study	15 healthy men	200 mg/8 weeks	-The red ginseng group exhibited significant improvements in or on the 3-back task and the Corsi block-tapping test. -There were significant improvements in social relationships in the WHO Quality of Life-BREF as well.	[62]
Red ginseng powder	Random, placebo-controlled, open-label (open study)	31 Alzheimer's disease patients aged 50 years or above taking medication	4.5 g or 9.0 g/12 weeks	-The high-dose red ginseng group improved significantly on both the ADAS and the CDR.	[64]
Red ginseng powder	Double-blind, random, placebo-controlled	15 healthy, smoking male students aged 19-31 years (smoked 20 cigarettes/day or above in the past 2 years)	1.8 g/4 weeks	-Time-dependent decrease in the 8-OHdG concentration in smokers who had taken red ginseng was clearly confirmed. -Red ginseng intake significantly decreased the carbonyl content (protein oxidation) of peripheral hemoglobin in comparison with the baseline.	[74]
Red ginseng extract	Random, placebo-controlled	40 male college students	2.7 g/3 months	-Red ginseng group exhibited significant effects in SOD, GPX, and MDA	[47]
Red ginseng powder	Random, double-blind, placebo-controlled	57 healthy drinking and smoking adults aged 20-65 years	3 g or 6 g/8 weeks	-DNA damages, SOD, GPX, CAT, blood oxidized LDL, and urine 8-epi PGF2α improved in red ginseng groups	[75]
Red ginseng powder	Random, double-blind, placebo-controlled	82 menopausal women aged 45-60 years	3 g/12 weeks	-SOD activity increased significantly in the red ginseng group. -No effect on GPX, 8-OHdG, IL-6, AST, ALT, and γ-GTP	[76]
Red ginseng powder	Random, double-blind, placebo-controlled	63 menopausal women aged 45-60 years	3 g/12 weeks	-The red ginseng group exhibited significant improvements in Kupperman and menopause rating index and total and LDL-cholesterol. -No difference in the estradiol (E2) concentration	[77]
Red ginseng extract	Random, double-blind, placebo-controlled	26 menopausal women with hot flashes	0.9 g/8 weeks	-The frequency of the occurrence of hot flash symptoms decreased significantly in the red ginseng group.	[78]
Red ginseng powder	Comparison before and after intake	83 menopausal women	6 g/8 weeks	-Follicle-stimulating hormones decreased and E2, red blood cell deformability, and ATP increased.	[79]
Red ginseng powder	-	17 menopausal women	6 g/3 months	-Vital energy deficiency (KI-deficiency), blood stasis (oketsu), and simplified menopausal index decreased to the levels of the healthy (i.e., without climacteric syndromes) menopausal women's group after red ginseng intake. -t-PAI-1 decreased significantly after red ginseng intake.	[80]
Red ginseng powder	-	Women with estrogen levels of 10 pg/ml or below	6 g/30 days	-The anxiety (A)-state in the Cornel Medical Index and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was found to recover to levels of the menopausal women's group without climacteric syndromes and the cortisol/DHEA-S ratio decreased significantly after red ginseng intake.	[81]

ADP, adenosine diphosphate; ADAS, Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; APTT, activated partial thromboplastin time; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; BCAA, branched-chain amino acid; CAT, catalase; CDR, clinical dementia rating; CK, creatine kinase; DHEA, dehydroepiandrosterone; GOT, glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase; GPX, glutathione peroxidase; γ-GTP, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase; IL, interleukin; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; MDA, malondialdehyde; NK, natural killer; PT, prothrombin time; SOD, superoxide dismutase.

¹⁾A randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled trial.