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. 2018 Oct 18;8:15429. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-33767-3

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Population structure using the ID1-DBL2Xb protein sequences (A) Four distinct clades are identified, with some overlap to the clades found in¹⁸, where Clade 1 is 3D7-like and Clade 2 is FCR3-like. The PCA analysis (B and C) supports the separation of these clades and reveals the proximity of Clades 1 and 2. (D) The distribution of clades across the different regions and previous studies, with three of the clades present across all the populations (Clades 1, 2 and 4); 3D7-like clade associated with adverse outcome in pregnancy is in West Africa (41.2%), East Africa (27.5%), South East Asia (23.5%) and South America (20%); Clade 3 is present in African parasite populations and Clade 4 is predominantly in African populations.