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. 2018 Oct 12;9:2270. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02270

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Copyright © 2018 Lapitz, Arbelaiz, Olaizola, Aranburu, Bujanda, Perugorria and Banales.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Regulatory mechanisms of EV biogenesis, release, and uptake. Exosome release can be inhibited by interfering their biogenesis (e.g., ceramide production) or the membrane fusion of the multivesicular endosome (MVE) with the plasma membrane (e.g., Rab27). Once EVs are released to the extracellular milieu, their uptake can be blocked by interfering the EV-plasma membrane protein interactions (e.g., Tetraspanins), clathrin- and caveolin-dependent endocytosos (e.g., Dynasore), phagocytosis (e.g., Wortmannin), and by inhibiting lipid-raft mediated endocytosis (e.g., Filipin). DFMO, difluoromethylornithine; DMA, dimethyl amiloride; ESCRT, endosomal sorting complex required for transport; EVs, extracellular vesicles; HSPG, heparan sulfate proteoglycans; ICAM-1, intercellular adhesion molecule 1; MβCD, methyl-β-cyclodextrin; nSMase, neutral sphingomyelinase; PS, phosphatidylserine.