Table 1.

Overview of advantages, limitations and typical indications of the most used methods in modern forensic radiology and 3D imaging.

Method	Advantages	Limitations	Typical indications
PMCT	– Short acquisition time – Relatively easy handling – Ideal for 3D reconstructions – Excellent visualization of skeletal system, gas, foreign bodies, fluids – Relatively low architectural equipment necessary – High spatial resolution	– X-rays – Low contrast in soft tissue – Formation and training necessary for interpretation of images – Relatively high maintenance costs – High volume of data needs special equipment for storage	– Trauma, especially skeletal system trauma (accidents, fall from height, traffic accidents, blunt force trauma) – Ballistic trauma – Child abuse – Detection of foreign bodies – Identification – Skeletal age estimation – Detection of air/gas (e.g. air embolism) – Changes of skeletal system
PMCTA	– Good soft tissue contrast – High spatial resolution – Ideal for 3D reconstructions of the vascular system – Method of choice for detecting bleeding sources – Minimally invasive	– Time consuming – Needs preparation of the body – High volume of data needs special equipment for storage – Formation and training necessary for interpretation of images – Costs for injection material/contrast agent	– Trauma, especially vascular system trauma (accidents, blunt force trauma, sharp trauma, ballistic trauma) – Vascular pathologies in natural death (pathological changes in coronary arteries, systemic vascular diseases) and vascular anomalies – Death after surgical/medical intervention
PMMR	– No X-rays – Excellent soft tissue contrast – High spatial resolution	– Long acquisition time – Complex handling – Very high maintenance costs – Special architectural conditions needed – 3D reconstructions need special sequences – Training/formation for interpretation of images needed – High volume of data needs special equipment for storage – Danger with ferromagnetic foreign bodies	– Traumatic organ lesions (blunt trauma, sharp trauma) – Organ lesions due to systemic of local illnesses (natural death) – Strangulation – Child abuse – Skeletal age estimation
3D Surface documentation	– Excellent visualization of surface – High spatial resolution (3DSS) – Ideal for “3D modelling” and reconstruction – Low maintenance costs – Mobile	– Time consuming (3DSS) – Complex handling (3DSS) – No information about inner findings – Data treatment needs specialist	– Trauma (traffic accidents, blunt force trauma) – Reconstructions of traffic accidents, crime scenes – Comparison between injuries and objects – Comparison between bite marks and dentition – Digitalization of objects (e.g. bones, murder weapon, etc.)

Abbreviations: PMCT: post-mortem computed tomography; PMCTA: PMCT-angiography; PMMR: post-mortem magnetic resonance imaging; 3DSS: 3D surface scan.