Table 1.
Effects of G. humilis on abdominal fat content, metabolic, and physiological parameters.
| Variables | C | CAP | CAR | H | HAP | HAR | p value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Diet | Treatment | Interaction | |||||||
| Initial body weight (0 week), g | 340 ± 3 a | 341 ± 1 a | 339 ± 1 a | 338 ± 1 a | 338 ± 2 a | 339 ± 1 a | 0.09 | 0.86 | 0.44 |
| Midpoint body weight (8 week), g | 361 ± 9 b | 347 ± 5 b | 363 ± 6 b | 437 ± 9 a | 414 ± 7 a | 438 ± 8 a | <0.0001 | 0.02 | 0.82 |
| Final body weight (16 week), g | 403 ± 10 b | 380 ± 7 b | 385 ± 7 b | 524 ± 14 a | 504 ± 8 a | 512 ± 12 a | <0.0001 | 0.11 | 0.97 |
| Food intake, g/day | 38.7 ± 2.1 a | 35.1 ± 2.0 ab | 37.6 ± 1.9 a | 27.8 ± 2.5 b | 27.2 ± 2.2 b | 28.6 ± 2.8 b | <0.0001 | 0.59 | 0.80 |
| Water intake, g/day | 33.6 ± 2.5 a | 27.3 ± 2.9 a | 30.1 ± 2.7 a | 29.5 ± 2.1 a | 28.1 ± 2.2 a | 31.4 ± 2.1 a | 0.77 | 0.36 | 0.57 |
| Flavonoids intake, mg/kg/day | - | 4.5 ± 0.2 c | 67.6 ± 3.0 a | - | 3.5 ± 0.6 c | 51.4 ± 2.9 b | 0.0002 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Procyanidin B2 intake, mg/kg/day | - | 3.8 ± 0.2 c | 55.2 ± 2.5 a | - | 2.9 ± 0.5 c | 42.0 ± 2.4 b | 0.0003 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Citric acid intake, mg/kg/day | - | 20.2 ± 1.0 c | 136.9 ± 6.1 a | - | 15.6 ± 2.7 c | 104. 2 ± 5.9 b | 0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Energy intake, kJ/day | 434 ± 41 b | 401 ± 28 b | 423 ± 21 b | 636 ± 47 a | 595.8 ± 43 a | 642 ± 50 a | <0.0001 | 0.59 | 0.95 |
| Feed conversion efficiency, g/kJ | 0.09 ± 0.01 bc | 0.09 ± 0.01 bc | 0.06 ± 0.00 c | 0.14 ± 0. 01 a | 0.15 ± 0.01 a | 0.11 ± 0.01 b | <0.0001 | 0.0004 | 0.19 |
| Body weight gained (8–16 week), % | 11.8 ± 0.9 c | 9.63 ± 0.9 cd | 6.77 ± 0.7 d | 19.8 ± 1.3 a | 22.0 ± 1.1 a | 16.8 ± 1.4 b | <0.0001 | 0.0004 | 0.14 |
| Abdominal circumference, cm | 19.0 ± 0.3 b | 18.5 ± 0.1 b | 18.9 ± 0.2 b | 21.6 ± 0.3 a | 21.4 ± 0.4 a | 21.0 ± 0.3 a | <0.0001 | 0.37 | 0.22 |
| Body mass index, kg/m2 | 6.28 ± 0.13 b | 6.32 ± 0.21 b | 6.51 ± 0.13 b | 8.04 ± 0.21 a | 7.61 ± 0.18 a | 7.93 ± 0.21 a | <0.0001 | 0.36 | 0.43 |
| Retroperitoneal fat, mg/mm * | 276 ± 24 b | 252 ± 11 b | 234 ± 16 b | 565 ± 47 a | 517± 44 a | 525 ± 36 a | <0.0001 | 0.37 | 0.90 |
| Epididymal fat, mg/mm * | 99 ± 9 b | 71± 8 b | 75 ± 9 b | 180 ± 41 a | 193 ± 19 a | 143 ± 16 a | <0.0001 | 0.13 | 0.21 |
| Omental fat, mg/mm * | 160 ± 12 b | 122 ± 10 b | 118 ± 9 b | 255 ± 21 a | 256 ± 10 a | 231 ± 15 a | <0.0001 | 0.058 | 0.35 |
| Total abdominal fat, mg/mm * | 536 ± 39 b | 445 ± 24 b | 427 ± 26 b | 1000 ± 85 a | 965 ± 70 a | 902 ± 62 a | <0.0001 | 0.18 | 0.87 |
| Visceral adiposity index, % | 6.23 ± 0.38 b | 4.92 ± 0.22 b | 5.21 ± 0.29 b | 9.11 ± 0.47 a | 8.81 ± 0.53 a | 8.76 ± 0.40 a | <0.0001 | 0.09 | 0.43 |
| Liver weight, mg/mm * | 234 ± 8 cd | 246 ± 7 c | 214 ± 4 d | 355 ± 12 a | 357 ± 10 a | 320 ± 10 b | <0.0001 | 0.0008 | 0.68 |
| Plasma biochemistry | |||||||||
| Basal blood glucose (16 week), mmol/L | 3.9 ± 0.2 b | 3.8 ± 0.2 b | 3.9 ± 0.1 b | 4.7 ± 0.1 a | 4.6 ± 0.2 a | 4.7 ± 0.1 a | <0.0001 | 0.76 | 0.99 |
| Area under the curve (16 week), mmol/L·minute | 647 ± 26 b | 652 ± 18 b | 623 ± 18 b | 768 ± 30 a | 752 ± 15 a | 743 ± 17 a | <0.0001 | 0.80 | 0.81 |
| ALT, U/L | 29.6 ± 2.6 b | 31.3 ± 2.9 bc | 31.0 ± 1.0 bc | 44.0 ± 3.4 a | 45.5 ± 3.8 a | 36.1 ± 2.0 b | <0.0001 | 0.18 | 0.14 |
| AST, U/L | 73.6 ± 3.4 b | 81.4± 6.1 b | 74.0 ± 2.0 b | 104.6 ± 6.2 a | 92.3 ± 5.9 ab | 85.3 ± 3.0 b | <0.0001 | 0.10 | 0.046 |
| Total cholesterol, mmol/L | 1.40 ± 0.1 a | 1.53 ± 0.05 a | 1.45 ± 0.1 a | 1.60 ± 0.1 a | 1.59 ± 0.05 a | 1.60 ± 0.05 a | 0.0409 | 0.75 | 0.68 |
| Triglyceride, mmol/L | 0.62 ± 0.1 d | 0.74 ± 0.1 dc | 0.5 ± 0.1 d | 2.00 ± 0.2 a | 1.87 ± 0.28 a | 1.27 ± 0.2 bc | <0.0001 | 0.028 | 0.23 |
| NEFA, mmol/L | 1.27 ± 0.2 b | 1.23 ± 0.18 b | 1.5 ± 0.2 b | 3.74 ± 0.4 a | 3.73 ± 0.25 a | 3.99 ± 0.3 a | <0.0001 | 0.55 | 0.98 |
| Catalase activity, kU/L | 43.7 ± 7.6 b | 46.7 ± 6.7 b | 36.9 ± 2.3 b | 51.7 ± 5.58 a | 53.6 ± 7.7 a | 60.0 ± 5.86 a | 0.0166 | 0.9224 | 0.361 |
| Cardiovascular variables | |||||||||
| Systolic blood pressure (16 week), mmHg | 127 ± 2 b | 126 ± 3 b | 129 ± 2 b | 143 ± 3 a | 141 ± 5 a | 130 ± 3 b | <0.0001 | 0.16 | 0.029 |
| LV + Septum, mg/mm * | 22.8 ± 1.0 a | 22.3 ± 1.1 a | 21.9 ± 0.6 a | 23.0 ± 0.9 a | 23.4 ± 0.6 a | 22.8 ± 0.6 a | 0.28 | 0.76 | 0.85 |
| Right ventricle, mg/mm * | 4.73 ± 0.31 a | 5.01 ± 0.24 a | 4.95 ± 0.31 a | 5.57 ± 0.39 a | 5.61 ± 0.56 a | 4.76 ± 0.32 a | 0.17 | 0.46 | 0.35 |
| Diastolic stiffness constant (κ) | 22.1 ± 0.4 c | 21.6 ± 0.8 c | 20.9 ± 0.3 c | 27.0 ± 0.8 a | 24.7 ± 0.9 b | 22.6 ± 0.6 c | <0.0001 | 0.0004 | 0.034 |
Values are expressed as mean ± SEM, n = 8–12. Means with different superscripts differ, p < 0.05. LV, left ventricle; AST, aspartate transaminase; ALT, alanine transaminase; NEFA, non-esterified fatty acids; C, corn starch diet fed rats; CAP, corn-starch diet with achacha pulp, CAR, corn starch diet with achacha rind; H, high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet-fed rats; HAP, high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet with achacha pulp; HAR, high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet with achacha rind. * Denotes the values were normalized against tibial length and given as the tissue weight in mg/mm.