Table 2.

Flaviviruses known to cause ocular disease in humans and their symptoms.

Virus	General Symptoms	Ocular Disease in Humans	References
West Nile Virus	headache, photophobia, back pain, confusion, fever, encephalitis, meningoencephalitis, acute flaccid paralysis—poliomyelitis-like, Guillain–Barré syndrome	chorioretinitis, anterior uveitis, retinal vasculitis, optic neuritis, and congenital chorioretinal scarring	[5,6,7,8]
Yellow Fever Virus	fever, chills, malaise, headache, lower back pain, generalized myalgia, nausea, and dizziness, vomiting, epigastric pain, prostration, and dehydration, petechiae, ecchymoses, epistaxis (bleeding of the gums), and the characteristic “black vomit” (gastrointestinal bleeding)	loss of vision, optic neuritis	[9,10,11]
Japanese Encephalitis Virus	Fever, headache, vomiting, fits, encephalitis, and coma	Blurred vision, retinal hemorrhage, ocular fundus	[12,13,14,15,16,17,18]
Kyasanur Forest Disease Virus	Frontal headache, fever, hemorrhagic pneumonitis, hepatomegaly and parenchymatic degeneration, nephrosis, characteristic reticulo-endothelial cells in spleen and liver along with leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, reduced red blood cells, bradycardia, meningoencephalitis, hemorrhagic fever manifestations, coma, mental disturbance, giddiness, stiff neck, abnormality of reflexes	hemorrhages in the conjunctiva, vitreous humor, and retina, mild iritis, the opacity of lens and keratitis	[19,20,21,22,23,24]
Dengue Virus	Fever, retro-orbital pain, myalgia, thrombocytopenia, severe abdominal pain, persistent vomiting, bleeding gums, restlessness	maculopathy, blurred vision, scotoma, floaters, subconjunctival hemorrhage, uveitis, vitritis, retinal hemorrhaging, retinal venular widening, higher retinal vascular dimension, retinal vascular sheathing, RPE mottling, tortuous vessels, acute macular neuroretinopathy, intraretinal macular, retinal edema, cotton wool spots, Roth’s spot, retinal detachment, retinochoroiditis, neuroretinitis, choroidal effusions, choroidal neovascularization, optic disc swelling and optic disc neuropathy, oculomotor nerve palsy, and panophthalmitis	[25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35]
Zika Virus	fever, rash, headache, joint pain, conjunctivitis, muscle pain, and may result in Guillain-Barre syndrome, microcephaly, hearing loss, seizures, impaired joint movement, facial deformities	gross macular pigment mottling, foveal reflex loss, and macular neuroretinal atrophy, chorioretinal atrophy, optic neuritis, retinal hemorrhaging, retinal mottling, iris coloboma, lens subluxation, gross macular pigment mottling, optic nerve hyperplasia, macular chorioretinal atrophy, anterior uveitis, and non-purulent conjunctivitis	[36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43]