Table 1.
Studies reporting choline concentrations in mature human milk.
| Country | n | Betaine (µmol/L) |
Choline (µmol/L) 1 | TC (mg/L) |
Reference | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FC | PCho | GPC | PC | SM | TC | |||||
| US | 10 | - | 85 | - | - | 180 | 206 | - | - | [127] |
| US | 16 | - | 116 | 570 | 362 | 82 | 124 | 1254 | 130 | [121] |
| US | 48 | 7 | 83 | 553 | 388 | 107 | 67 | 1198 | 125 | [119] |
| US | 60 | - | 158 | - | - | - | - | - | - | [128] |
| US | 28 | 3.8 | 84 | 500 | 403 | 63 | 175 | 1225 | 128 | [120] |
| Turkey | 12 | - | 286 | 438 | 465 | 155 | 97 | 1441 2 | 150 | [116] |
| Turkey 3 | 54 | - | 93 | 351 | 958 | - | - | 1532 | 159 | [129] |
| Japan | 62 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 950 | 99 | [117] |
| Korea | 36 | 31 | 283 | - | - | - | - | 1600 | 166 | [118] |
| Sweden | 1 | - | 188 | 704 | 672 | - | - | - | - | [130] |
| Canada | 301 | 4.8 | 155 | 535 | 416 | - | - | - | - | [131] |
| Cambodia | 67 | 5.1 | 143 | 562 | 390 | - | - | - | - | [131] |
1 Data are presented as mean concentrations, unless otherwise noted; 2 TC is reported as the sum of all individual choline forms when a discrepancy was found with the value reported for TC in each study; 3 median is presented. Abbreviations: FC, free choline; PCho, phosphocholine; GPC, glycerophosphocholine; PC, phosphatidylcholine; SM, sphingomyelin; TC, total choline (sum FC + PCho + GPC + PC + SM).