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. 2018 Nov 2;8:16274. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-34625-y

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Overview of carotenoid-retinoid metabolism. The name of the proteins mediating the different steps in vertebrates are in grey roman letter while their equivalents in insects, when known, are in grey italics. (A) NPC1L1 (Niemann–Pick C1-like 1)/NinaD (Neither inactivation nor afterpotential D); (B) CMO1 (Carotenoid mono-oxygenase 1)/NinaB (Neither inactivation nor afterpotential B); (C) RALDH (Retinal dehydrogenase) or ALDH (Aldehyde dehydrogenase); (D) Rrd (Retinal reductase/SDRs (Short chain dehydrogenases/reductases); (E) Rdh (Retinol dehydrogenase); (F) LRAT (Lecithin retinol acyltransferase) or ARAT (Acyl CoA:retinol acyltransferase; (G) REH (Retinyl ester hydrolase); (H) CYP26 (Cytochrome P450 26).