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. 2018 Nov 2;8:16260. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-34567-5

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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A schematic illustration of the possible mechanisms of nMgO against planktonic bacteria and bacterial biofilm. Oxidative stress, Ca²⁺ ion concentrations, membrane damage, and quorum sensing are the possible mechanisms of nMgO against planktonic bacteria, but alkaline pH of 7 to 10 or increased Mg²⁺ ion concentrations from 1 to 50 mM showed no inhibitory or killing effects on bacteria such as S. epidermidis.