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. 2018 Nov 5;8:16355. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-34737-5

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Paradigm. (a) The participant grasped the handle of the robotic manipulandum (vBOT) while seated. Visual feedback was presented veridically using a horizontally-mounted monitor viewed through a mirror. (b) At the start of each reaching trial, a target was illuminated (yellow circle), cueing the participant to move their hand (green circle) from the center of the workspace to the illuminated target by making a fast reaching movement. In the pulse phase, a series of brief pulses of force (black arrow) was applied to the handle of the manipulandum in a random direction. Participants in the stiff group were instructed to keep their hand within a 1.5 cm radius of the home position (red ring) by co-contracting the muscles of their arm. Participants in the relaxed group were instructed to let their hand move freely by relaxing the muscles of their arm. In the exposure phase, a velocity-dependent force field was applied. Channel trials were used to assess adaptation for the 90° target only.