Table 3.
Predictors of depression risk level vs. no depression risk at 2.5-years follow-up, as measured by PHQ-9.
|
N with PHQ9 =
0–4 (Normal) (%) |
N with PHQ9 =
5–9 (Minimal) (%) |
N with PHQ9 =
10–14 (Major, moderate/severe) (%) |
N with PHQ9 = ≥15 (Major, moderate/severe) (%) |
aPR Minimal depression symptoms vs. no depression risk | aPR Major depression, mild vs. no depression risk | aPR Major depression, moderate/severe vs. no depression risk | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SMOKE TOBACCO? | |||||||
| Never | 358 (52.9%) | 198 (29.3%) | 67 (9.9%) | 54 (8.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Ex-smoker | 228 (46.4%) | 156 (31.8%) | 54 (11.0%) | 53 (10.8%) | 1.06 (0.91, 1.23) | 1.04 (0.77, 1.41) | 1.33 (0.99, 1.79) |
| Current smoker | 21 (22.3%) | 27 (28.7%) | 23 (24.5%) | 23 (24.5%) | 1.34 (1.02, 1.75) | 2.17 (1.50, 3.15) | 1.99 (1.45, 2.74) |
| Trend: | p = 0.071 | p = 0.002 | p<0.001 | ||||
| ALCOHOL INTAKE | |||||||
| Non-drinker | 107 (43.5%) | 70 (28.5%) | 32 (13.0%) | 37 (15.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| < Once per week | 170 (43.9%) | 119 (30.8%) | 53 (13.7%) | 45 (11.6%) | 1.03 (0.84, 1.26) | 0.98 (0.69, 1.40) | 0.78 (0.57, 1.06) |
| 1–3 days per week | 174 (52.3%) | 100 (30.0%) | 32 (9.6%) | 27 (8.1%) | 0.97 (0.78, 1.20) | 0.74 (0.49, 1.11) | 0.63 (0.42, 0.94) |
| 4–7 days per week | 130 (54.2%) | 71 (29.6%) | 24 (10.0%) | 15 (6.3%) | 0.97 (0.78, 1.22) | 0.80 (0.53, 1.22) | 0.68 (0.41, 1.11) |
| Trend: | p = 0.67 | p = 0.13 | p = 0.030 | ||||
| ALCOHOL LOADa | |||||||
| Low | 41 (42.3%) | 27 (27.8%) | 11 (11.3%) | 18 (18.6%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Moderate | 388 (50.1%) | 236 (30.5%) | 82 (10.6%) | 69 (8.9%) | 1.00 (0.76, 1.31) | 0.88 (0.52, 1.48) | 0.62 (0.43, 0.89) |
| High | 74 (48.1%) | 46 (29.9%) | 23 (14.9%) | 11 (7.1%) | 1.09 (0.79, 1.51) | 1.29 (0.73, 2.29) | 0.75 (0.41, 1.38) |
| Trend: | p = 0.48 | p = 0.14 | p = 0.18 | ||||
| DHQ TOTAL SCORE | |||||||
| 32–70 | 104 (32.3%) | 107 (33.2%) | 52 (16.2%) | 59 (18.3%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| >70–80 | 129 (41.8%) | 97 (31.4%) | 45 (14.6%) | 38 (12.3%) | 0.88 (0.73, 1.07 | 0.81 (0.60, 1.11) | 0.79 (0.58, 1.09) |
| >80–89 | 178 (53.1%) | 99 (29.6%) | 34 (10.2%) | 24 (7.2%) | 0.77 (0.63, 0.93) | 0.67 (0.47, 0.96) | 0.60 (0.42, 0.87) |
| >89–100 | 195 (65.9%) | 79 (26.7%) | 13 (4.4%) | 9 (3.0%) | 0.70 (0.57, 0.87) | 0.33 (0.19, 0.58) | 0.33 (0.17, 0.62) |
| Trend: | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | ||||
| CONSUMES MEAT? | |||||||
| No | 290 (59.2%) | 130 (26.5%) | 42 (8.6%) | 28 (5.7%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 317 (41.0%) | 252 (32.6%) | 102 (13.2%) | 102 (13.2%) | 1.28 (1.09, 1.49) | 1.41 (1.04, 1.90) | 1.51 (1.07, 2.13) |
| p = 0.002 | p = 0.026 | p = 0.020 | |||||
| CONSUMES DAIRY? | |||||||
| No | 311 (58.2%) | 152 (28.5%) | 39 (7.3%) | 32 (6.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 293 (40.4%) | 229 (31.6%) | 105 (14.5%) | 98 (13.5%) | 1.21 (1.04, 1.40) | 1.61 (1.18, 2.21) | 1.49 (1.06, 2.10) |
| p = 0.012 | p = 0.003 | p = 0.022 | |||||
| TAKING A VITAMIN D SUPPLEMENT? | |||||||
| No | 66 (35.5%) | 57 (30.7%) | 28 (15.1%) | 35 (18.8%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 541 (50.2%) | 326 (30.25) | 116 (10.8%) | 95 (8.8%) | 0.91 (0.76, 1.10) | 0.73 (0.53, 1.00) | 0.61 (0.46, 0.79) |
| p = 0.35 | p = 0.050 | p<0.001 | |||||
| TALKING AN OMEGA-3 SUPPLEMENT? | |||||||
| No | 177 (39.3%) | 145 (32.2%) | 69 (15.3%) | 59 (13.1%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 430 (52.8%) | 238 (29.2%) | 75 (9.2%) | 71 (8.7%) | 0.91 (0.79, 1.05) | 0.75 (0.57, 0.99) | 0.84 (0.65, 1.09) |
| p = 0.19 | p = 0.039 | p = 0.18 | |||||
| PHYSICAL ACTIVITY | |||||||
| Low activity | 127 (33.7%) | 128 (34.0%) | 64 (17.0%) | 58 (15.4%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Moderate activity | 294 (52.9%) | 165 (29.7%) | 53 (9.5%) | 44 (7.9%) | 0.93 (0.79, 1.10) | 0.72 (0.53, 0.98) | 0.72 (0.52, 1.00) |
| High activity | 162 (62.1%) | 69 (26.4%) | 20 (7.7%) | 10 (3.8%) | 0.96 (0.77, 1.20) | 0.69 (0.44, 1.10) | 0.48 (0.27, 0.86) |
| Trend: | p = 0.57 | p = 0.035 | p = 0.004 | ||||
| MODERATE/HIGH PHYSICAL ACTIVITY? | |||||||
| No | 127 (33.7%) | 128 (34.0%) | 64 (17.0%) | 58 (15.4%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 456 (55.8%) | 234 (28.6%) | 73 (8.9%) | 54 (6.6%) | 0.94 (0.80, 1.10) | 0.71 (0.53, 0.96) | 0.67 (0.49, 0.91) |
| p = 0.44 | p = 0.024 | p = 0.012 | |||||
| MEDITATES AT LEAST WEEKLY? | |||||||
| No | 374 (45.8%) | 245 (30.0%) | 109 (13.3%) | 89 (10.9%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 229 (53.0%) | 133 (30.8%) | 35 (8.1%) | 35 (8.1%) | 0.99 (0.85, 1.15) | 0.66 (0.48, 0.90) | 0.85 (0.63, 1.14) |
| p = 0.86 | p = 0.008 | p = 0.28 | |||||
Analyses by log-multinomial regression29, estimating a prevalence ratio (PR) (95% CI). All models adjusted for age, P-MSSS, FSS, and use of antidepressant medication.
Figures in boldface denote statistical significance (p < 0.05). Figures in italics are p-values.
a
Alcohol intake was categorized specific to sex, such that low alcohol intake was defined as < 15 grams of alcohol per week, moderate was up to 30 grams alcohol per day for females and up to 45 grams alcohol per day for males, and heavy was over 30 grams alcohol per day for females and over 45 grams alcohol per day for males.
BMI, body mass index; DHQ, Dietary Habits Questionnaire; FSS, Fatigue Severity Scale; IPAQ, International Physical Activity Questionnaire; PHQ, Patient Health Questionnaire; P-MSSS, Patient Determined Multiple Sclerosis Severity Score.