Table 4.
Baseline demographic and lifestyle predictors of change in PHQ-2 depression state between baseline and 2.5-years follow-up.
| N with depression at both baseline and follow-up (row %) | N with depression at baseline, not at follow-up (row %) | RR loss of depression vs. always depressed | aRR loss of depression vs. always depressed | N with negative depression-screen at both baseline and follow-up (row %) | N with no depression at baseline but with depression at follow-up (row %) | RR gain of depression vs. never depressed | aRR gain of depression vs. never depressed | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SMOKE TOBACCO? | ||||||||
| Never | 23 (35.9%) | 41 (64.1%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 546 (91.2%) | 53 (8.9%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Ex-smoker | 33 (46.5%) | 38 (53.5%) | 0.84 (0.63, 1.11) | 0.88 (0.66, 1.18) | 363 (90.8%) | 37 (9.3%) | 1.04 0.70, 1.55) | 1.11 (0.74, 1.66) |
| Current smoker | 15 (50.0%) | 15 (50.0%) | 0.78 (0.52,1.16) | 0.79 (0.53, 1.19) | 61 (82.4%) | 13 (17.6%) | 1.83 (1.04, 3.22) | 1.38 (0.72, 2.63) |
| Trend: | p = 0.16 | p = 0.21 | p = 0.14 | p = 0.36 | ||||
| CURRENT SMOKER? | ||||||||
| No | 56 (41.5%) | 79 (58.5%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 909 (91.0%) | 90 (9.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 15 (50.0%) | 15 (50.0%) | 0.85 (0.58, 1.25) | 0.85 (0.58, 1.24) | 61 (82.4%) | 13 (17.6%) | 1.80 (1.05, 3.09) | 1.33 (0.71, 2.48) |
| p = 0.41 | p = 0.39 | p = 0.033 | p = 0.38 | |||||
| ALCOHOL INTAKE | ||||||||
| Non-drinker | 21 (56.8%) | 16 (43.2%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 137 (87.3%) | 20 (12.7%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| < Once per week | 28 (40.6%) | 41 (59.4%) | 1.33 (0.88, 202) | 1.56 (0.97, 2.49) | 353 (89.1%) | 43 (10.9%) | 0.82 (0.50, 1.33) | 0.72 (0.44, 1.18) |
| 1–3 days per week | 10 (33.3%) | 20 (66.7%) | 1.50 (0.96, 2.35) | 1.71 (1.03, 2.84) | 278 (92.7%) | 22 (7.3%) | 0.54 (0.31, 0.95) | 0.61 (0.35, 1.08) |
| 4–7 days per week | 12 (41.4%) | 17 (58.6%) | 1.32 (0.81, 2.13) | 1.58 (0.92, 2.73) | 203 (91.9%) | 18 (8.1%) | 0.61 (0.34, 1.10) | 0.57 (0.31, 1.05) |
| Trend: | p = 0.21 | p = 0.073 | p = 0.039 | p = 0.083 | ||||
| DRINKS ALCOHOL? | ||||||||
| No | 21 (56.8%) | 16 (43.2%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 137 (87.3%) | 20 (12.7%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 50 (39.1%) | 78 (60.9%) | 1.37 (0.92, 2.03) | 1.60 (1.02, 2.51) | 834 (91.0%) | 83 (9.1%) | 0.68 (0.43, 1.06) | 0.65 (0.41, 1.03) |
| p = 0.12 | p = 0.041 | p = 0.088 | p = 0.065 | |||||
| ALCOHOL LOADa | ||||||||
| Low | 37 (50.0%) | 38 (50.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 304 (87.0%) | 45 (13.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Moderate | 21 (32.3%) | 44 (67.7%) | 1.33 (1.01, 1.75) | 1.47 (1.10, 1.96) | 480 (92.1%) | 41 (7.9%) | 0.60 (0.41, 0.88) | 0.70 (0.47, 1.05) |
| High | 9 (47.4%) | 10 (52.6%) | 1.05 (0.65, 1.72) | 1.12 (0.67, 1.86) | 139 (92.7%) | 11 (7.3%) | 0.54 (0.30, 1.00) | 0.54 (0.27, 1.06) |
| Trend: | p = 0.28 | p = 0.14 | p = 0.010 | p = 0.025 | ||||
| HIGH ALCOHOL CONSUMPTIONa? | ||||||||
| No | 58 (42.1%) | 82 (57.9%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 820 (89.9%) | 92 (10.1%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 9 (47.4%) | 10 (52.6%) | 0.92 (0.58, 1.45) | 0.91 (0.57, 1.46) | 139 (92.7%) | 11 (7.3%) | 0.71 (0.39, 1.28) | 0.64 (0.33, 1.22) |
| p = 0.71 | p = 0.69 | p = 0.25 | p = 0.18 | |||||
| DHQ TOTAL SCORE | ||||||||
| 32–70 | 25 (43.9%) | 32 (56.1%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 168 (85.3%) | 29 (14.7%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| >70–80 | 20 (41.7%) | 28 (58.3%) | 0.99 (0.71, 1.39) | 0.99 (0.71, 1.38) | 206 (88.0%) | 28 (12.0%) | 0.86 (0.54, 1.38) | 0.98 (0.59, 1.60) |
| >80–89 | 15 (36.6%) | 26 (63.4%) | 1.12 (0.81, 1.55) | 1.04 (0.75, 1.45) | 269 (91.8%) | 24 (8.2%) | 0.61 (0.37, 0.99) | 0.79 (0.47, 1.31) |
| >89–100 | 11 (55.0%) | 9 (45.0%) | 0.77 (0.45, 1.30) | 0.70 (0.41, 1.18) | 332 (93.8%) | 22 (6.2%) | 0.47 (0.28, 0.79) | 0.59 (0.34, 1.02) |
| Trend: | p = 0.69 | p = 0.44 | p = 0.001 | p = 0.041 | ||||
| CONSUMES MEAT? | ||||||||
| No | 21 (51.2%) | 20 (48.8%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 426 (92.0%) | 37 (8.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 50 (40.0%) | 75 (60.0%) | 1.22 (0.87, 1.72) | 1.45 (0.98, 2.16) | 548 (89.3%) | 66 (10.8%) | 1.30 (0.89, 1.89) | 1.07 (0.72, 1.59) |
| p = 0.25 | p = 0.063 | p = 0.18 | p = 0.73 | |||||
| CONSUMES DAIRY? | ||||||||
| No | 20 (45.5%) | 24 (54.6%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 466 (93.4%) | 33 (6.6%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 51 (42.2%) | 70 (57.9%) | 1.10 (0.81, 1.50) | 1.17 (0.84, 1.62) | 503 (88.1%) | 68 (11.9%) | 1.72 (1.16, 2.54) | 1.41 (0.94, 2.11) |
| p = 0.54 | p = 0.36 | p = 0.007 | p = 0.096 | |||||
| TALKING A VITAMIN D SUPPLEMENT? | ||||||||
| No | 18 (46.2%) | 21 (53.9%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 130 (84.4%) | 24 (15.6%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 53 (41.7%) | 74 (58.3%) | 1.04 (0.75, 1.45) | 1.03 (0.73, 1.45) | 845 (91.5%) | 79 (8.6%) | 0.60 (0.40, 0.91) | 0.64 (0.42, 1.00) |
| p = 0.82 | p = 0.87 | p = 0.015 | p = 0.047 | |||||
| TALKING AN OMEGA-3 SUPPLEMENT? | ||||||||
| No | 38 (50.0%) | 38 (50.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 267 (89.9%) | 30 (10.1%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 33 (36.7%) | 57 (63.3%) | 1.23 (0.93, 1.62) | 1.25 (0.94, 1.66) | 708 (90.7%) | 73 (9.4%) | 0.96 (0.65, 1.42) | 1.08 (0.71, 1.66) |
| p = 0.15 | p = 0.13 | p = 0.83 | p = 0.72 | |||||
| PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, BY IPAQ | ||||||||
| Low activity | 37 (42.1%) | 51 (58.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 273 (88.1%) | 37 (11.9%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Moderate activity | 23 (46.0%) | 27 (54.0%) | 0.94 (0.69, 1.28) | 0.89 (0.64, 1.23) | 407 (91.5%) | 38 (8.5%) | 0.76 (0.50, 1.16) | 1.13 (0.72, 1.78) |
| High activity | 6 (30.0%) | 14 (70.0%) | 1.21 (0.88, 1.67) | 1.11 (0.78, 1.59) | 236 (92.9%) | 18 (7.1%) | 0.70 (0.41, 1.18) | 1.04 (0.58, 1.88) |
| Trend: | p = 0.51 | p = 0.69 | p = 0.15 | p = 0.92 | ||||
| MODERATE/HIGH PHYSICAL ACTIVITY? | ||||||||
| No | 37 (42.1%) | 51 (58.0%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 273 (88.2%) | 37 (11.8%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 29 (41.4%) | 41 (58.6%) | 1.02 (0.78, 1.32) | 0.95 (0.72, 1.27) | 643 (91.5%) | 56 (8.5%) | 0.80 (0.55, 1.17) | 1.18 (0.77, 1.81) |
| p = 0.91 | p = 0.74 | p = 0.24 | p = 0.45 | |||||
| MEDITATES AT LEAST WEEKLY? | ||||||||
| No | 48 (37.5%) | 80 (62.5%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] | 637 (90.2%) | 69 (9.8%) | 1.00 [Reference] | 1.00 [Reference] |
| Yes | 23 (60.5%) | 15 (39.5%) | 0.60 (0.40, 0.92) | 0.61 (0.40, 0.94) | 337 (90.8%) | 34 (9.2%) | 0.94 (0.63, 1.38) | 0.90 (0.60, 1.35) |
| p = 0.017 | p = 0.024 | p = 0.73 | p = 0.62 | |||||
Analyses by log-binomial regression, estimating a risk ratio (RR) (95% CI). Adjusted models adjusted for age, baseline P-MSSS, baseline FSS, and baseline use of antidepressant medication.
Figures in boldface denote statistical significance (p < 0.05). Figures in italics are p-values.
a
Alcohol intake was categorized specific to sex, such that low alcohol intake was defined as < 15 grams of alcohol per week, moderate was up to 30 grams alcohol per day for females and up to 45 grams alcohol per day for males, and heavy was over 30 grams alcohol per day for females and over 45 grams alcohol per day for males.
BMI, body mass index; DHQ, Dietary Habits Questionnaire; FSS, Fatigue Severity Scale; IPAQ, International Physical Activity Questionnaire; PHQ, Patient Health Questionnaire; P-MSSS, Patient Determined Multiple Sclerosis Severity Score.