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. 2018 Oct 30;9:1520. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01520

Table 3.

Results of animal studies testing the effect of lithium (a), rapamycin (b), rifampicin (c) and bosutinib (d) on cognition.

Author, year Cognitive tests Outcomes Significance
a Caccamo et al., 2007 T-maze (Alternation %) Wt Li−66.67 (8.7), ctrl−72.15 (2.4) ±
Tg Li−55.71 (5.6), ctrl−55.21 (5.8) ±
a Nocjar et al., 2007 Hole-board spatial discrimination task:
Search time (s) session 6 Li−6 (1), Ctrl−20 (3) +
Repeat visits (# lower = better) Li−0.6 (0.1), Ctrl−1.5 (0.4) +
Number of errors (# lower = better) Li−1.6 (0.2), Ctrl−1.9 (0.2) ±
T-maze delayed alternation task:
Sessions to reach criterion (#) Li−13.5 (1), Ctrl−20 (1.5) +
Social conditioned place preference:
Percent correct (%) 1min Li−75 (2.5), Ctrl−72.5 (5) ±
3min Li−70 (3), Ctrl−58 (4) +
5min Li−65 (2.5), Ctrl−60 (2.5) ±
Run time (min) 1min Li−3.7 (1), Ctrl−1.9 (0.2) NR
3min Li−2.7 (0.5), Ctrl−2.8 (0.5) ±
5min Li−2.9 (0.5), Ctrl−3.2 (0.5) ±
Preference for social chamber (s): Li−280 (100), Ctrl−175 (100) +
a Rockenstein et al., 2007 Morris water maze:
Meters to reach platform day 7 Tg Li−3 (0.5), ctrl−11.5 (3) +
Wt Li−3.25 (0.5), ctrl−3 (0.5)
Platform crosses (#) Tg Li−7 (1.5), ctrl−6 (1) ±
Wt Li−6 (2), ctrl−7 (1)
Time in target quadrant (s) Tg Li−16 (3), ctrl−18 (2) ±
Wt Li−15 (3), ctrl−16 (3)
a Fiorentini et al., 2010 Morris water maze: Early stage disease (3 months)
Escape latency day 4 (s) Li 35s (5s), ctrl 55s (2s) +++
Time in target section (%) Li 7.4% (2.25%), ctrl 1.25% (1.25%) ++
Inhibitory avoidance test (s) Li 27 (3), ctrl 9.5 (2) +++
Late stage disease (7 months)
Escape latency day 4 (s) Li 50 (2), ctrl 59 (1) NR
Time in target section (%) Li 1.5 (0.5), ctrl 1.5 (0.5) ±
Inhibitory avoidance test Li 14 (3.5), ctrl 8 (4) ±
a Toledo and Inestrosa, 2010 Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 5 (s) Tg Li−45 (9), ctrl−35 (7.5) ±
WT ctrl−27 (10)
Memory flexibility test:
No. of trials to criterion (#) Tg Li−7 (0.5), ctrl 12 (0.25) +
WT ctrl−5 (0.25)
a Sy et al., 2011 Morris water maze:
Escape latency during day 7 (s) Li + Na−25 (2), ctrl + Na−17 (5) NR
Li + LPS−26 (3), ctrl + LPS−20 (3) NR
Probe trial (24 h)
Time spent in target quadrant (s) Li + Na−17.5 (4.5), ctrl + Na−22 (4) ±
Li + LPS−19 (2), ctrl + LPS−13 (4) ±
Latency to platform (s) Li + Na−24 (6), ctrl + Na−17.5 (5) ±
Li + LPS−26 (5), ctrl + LPS−47.5 (7.5) +
Number of platform location crosses (#) Li + Na−5 (1.3), ctrl + Na−5.4 (1) ±
Li + LPS−3 (0.25), ctrl + LPS−1 (0.5) +
a Nunes et al., 2015 Barnes maze: Treated before deficits
Escape latency (s; mean) Li−40 (3), ctrl−75 (7) +
Time in target quadrant (%) Li−52.3 (6.8) Ctrl−22.8 (4.9) +++
Aversive memory test session (s) Li−299 (298/300), Ctrl−216 (137/298) ++
Barnes maze: Treated after deficits
Escape latency (s; mean) Li – 25 (2), Ctrl – 75 (7) +
Time in target quadrant (%) Li−32 (4) Ctrl−22.8 (4.9) ++
Aversive memory test session (s): Li−298 (139/298), Ctrl−216 (137/298) +
a Wilson et al., 2017 Novel object recognition (preference ratio) WT Li−0.39 (0.04), veh−0.43 (0.04) Tg AD Li−0.39 (0.02) veh−0.28 (0.02) NR +
Morris water maze:
Escape latency training day 5 (s) WT Li−31 (7), veh−15 (5) NR
Tg Li−40 (10) AD veh−33 (8) ±
Time in target quadrant (%) WT Li−44 (5), veh−48 (5) ±
Tg AD Li−45 (3), veh−50 (8) ±
Auditory fear conditioning task:
Contextual (% freezing) WT Li−60 (15), veh−79 (11) ±
Tg AD Li−60 (10) veh−55 (10) ±
Cued recall (% freezing) WT Li−55 (15), veh−85 (10) NR
Tg AD Li−63 (7), veh−30 (5) +
a Nery et al., 2014 Avoidance behavior
% animals in non-stimulus area Aβ inj Li 65 (2), ctrl: 55 (1) +++
a McBride et al., 2010 Treated before deficits Alzheimer's Tg:
Learning during training (%)
psn[B3]/+ flies Li 75(5) -> 45(10), ctrl 62.5(7.5) -> 51 (9) +++
psn[I2]/+ flies Li 65(7.5) -> 30(10) ctrl 63(8) -> 52(8) +++
Short term memory (%)
psn[B3]/+ flies Li–Naive 90(2), trained 70(5) ++
Ctrl–Naive 76(6), trained 75(6) ±
psn[I2]/+ flies Li–Naive 88(2), trained 72(5) +
Ctrl–Naive 83(5), trained 85 (3) ±
Treated after deficits
Learning during training (%)
psn[B3]/+ flies Li 65(7.5) -> 18(7), ctrl 70(5) -> 62.5(7.5) +++
psn[I2]/+ flies Li 76(5) -> 18(7), ctrl 47.5(7.5) -> 35(7.5) +++
Short term memory (%)
psn[B3]/+ flies Li–Naive 90(4), trained 62.5(7.5) ++
Ctrl–Naive 70(8), trained 75(7) ±
psn[I2]/+ flies Li–Naive 84(6), trained 62.5(7.5) ++
Ctrl–Naive 57.5(7.5), trained 63(8) ±
Treated before deficits
Short term memory Parkinson's Tg:
Li 80(4) -> 75(5), ctrl 82.5(5) -> 78(4) ±
b Spilman et al., 2010 Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 4 (s) Tg Rapa 32(3), ctrl 42(5) +
WT Rapa 15(2.5), ctrl 32.5(3) NR
Platform crosses (#) Tg Rapa 2.5(0.5), ctrl 0.9(0.1) +/±
WT Rapa 5(1), ctrl 3.1(0.4) NR
b Majumder et al., 2011 Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 5 (s) Pre-AD–Rapa 26.9(2.1), ctrl 37.96(2.9) +
Est AD – Rapa 36(2), ctrl 37.96(2.9) ±
YA–Rapa 20.7(1.05), ctrl 29.1(2.7) +
MA–Rapa 32.5(1.5), ctrl 29.1(2.7) ±
Trial time in target quadrant (s) Pre-AD–Rapa 22.5(2.5), ctrl 15(2.5) +
Est AD–Rapa 17.5(1.5), ctrl 15(2.5) ±
YA–Rapa 29(2), ctrl 21.5(1.5) +
MA–Rapa 21(1.5), ctrl 21.5(1.5) ±
MWM platform crosses (#) Pre-AD–Rapa 3.5(0.5), ctrl 1.95(0.25) +
Est AD–Rapa 1.75(0.2), ctrl 1.95(0.25) ±
YA–Rapa 5.25(0.3), ctrl 3.8 (0.25) +
MA–Rapa 3.5 (0.2), ctrl 3.8 (0.25) ±
Novel object recognition Pre-AD–Rapa 65 (7), ctrl 50 (5) +
Est AD–Rapa 55 (2.5), ctrl 50 (5) ±
YA–Rapa 67.5(2.5), ctrl 70 (4) ±
MA–Rapa 60 (5), ctrl 70 (4) ±
b Halloran et al., 2012 Passive avoidance test (s) MA–Rapa 200(40), ctrl 160(40) ±
OA–Rapa 200(30), ctrl 100(20) +
b Majumder et al., 2012 Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 5 (s) YA–Rapa 21(1), ctrl 30(2.5) +
MA–Rapa 31(2), ctrl 30(2.5) ±
Time in target quadrant (s) YA–Rapa 28.73(1.65), ctrl 21.3(1.24) ++
MA–Rapa 20.97(1.18), ctrl 21.3(1.24) ±
Latency to platform (s) YA–Rapa 20(2), ctrl 27(3) +
MA–Rapa 31(3), ctrl 27(3) ±
Platform crosses YA–Rapa 5.3(0.2), ctrl 3.9(0.15) +++
MA–Rapa 3.5(0.25), ctrl 3.9 (0.15) ±
b Lin et al., 2013 Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 5 training (s) WT–rapa 28(4), ctrl 25(3)
AD–rapa 35(9), ctrl 40(4) ±
Platform crosses (#) WT rapa−3.1(0.5), ctrl 3.9(0.6)
AD rapa−2.1 (0.5), ctrl−0.75 (0.25) +
b Neff et al., 2013 Object place recognition (s) YA rapa–novel 22(3), known 12(2) ±
YA veh–novel 24(4), known 14(2)
MA rapa–novel 15(3), known 10(2) ±
MA veh–novel 17(2), known 15(4)
Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 5 (s) YA rapa 30(1), veh 41 (2) +/±
MA rapa 37 (3), veh 39 (1) +/±
Time in target quadrant (s) YA rapa 25(2), veh 21 (2) ++
MA rapa 25 (2), veh 20 (3) ++
Target crossings (#) YA rapa 2.3(0.2), veh 1.3(0.2) ++
MA rapa 1.5 (0.3), veh 1.5 (0.2) ±
Context fear conditioning:
Activity suppression (ratio) YA rapa 0.2 (0.02), veh 0.21 (0.02) ++
MA rapa 0.195 (0.01), veh 0.28 (0.02) ++
OA rapa 0.195 (0.01), veh 0.25 (0.04) ++
b Wang et al., 2014 Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 4 (s) Rapa 25(3), ctrl 35(4) +
Escape latency trial (s) Rapa 16(5), ctrl 32(2.5) ++
Time in target quadrant (s) Rapa 26(3.5), ctrl 12.5(1) ++
b Zhu et al., 2014 Morris water maze:
Escape latency (s) Scop + rapa−50 (7.5)
Scop + saline−38 (5) ++
Saline only−55 (7)
Scop + rapa + MAD−39 (4) +
Time in target quadrant (%) Scop + rapa−65 (7)
Scop + saline−80 (8) +
Saline only−62 (6)
Scop + rapa + MAD−75 (7.5) +
b Lin et al., 2015 Morris water maze:
Escape latency (s) Rapa 25(1), ctrl 19(2) ±
Platform crosses (#) Rapa 1.6(0.25), ctrl 1.75(0.25) ±
b Wang et al., 2016 Y-maze (alternation %):
4wks post infusion Rapa 39(6), ctrl 62(10)
8 wks post infusion Rapa 48(7), ctrl 53(8) ±
b Jahrling et al., 2017 Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 4 (s) Rapa 30(4), ctrl 40(5) +++
Trial time in target quadrant (%) Rapa 32(6), ctrl 13(2) +
Spatial Novelty (>0.33 = intact) Rapa 0.44 (0.02), ctrl 0.34 (0.02) +++
b Zhang et al., 2017 Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 5 (s) Rapa−32.5(5), veh 67(13) +++
Time in target quadrant (%) Rapa−42.5(7.5), veh 22.5(7.5) +
Number of platform crossings (#) Rapa−3.75 (5.5), veh−1.5 (0.5) +
c Umeda et al., 2016 Morris water maze:
Escape latency day 5 (s) 12m APP rif−19(5), veh−35(6) ++
18m APP veh−36(5)
18m APP rif0.5mg−29(5) ±
18m APP rif1mg−17.5(5) ++
8m Tau609 rif0.5mg 14(2.3), veh−41(8) +
15m Tau609 rif1mg 29(7), veh 43(7) ±
Time in target quadrant (%) 12m APP rif−45(5), veh−29(3) ±
18m APP veh−29(6)
18m APP rif0.5mg−37(6) ±
18m APP rif1mg−49(4) +
8m Tau609 rif0.5mg 30(4), veh−16(7) +
15m Tau609 rif0.5mg 42(10), veh−21(9) ±
d Lonskaya et al., 2013 Morris water maze:
Time in target quadrant (%) Aβ icv bosu 29(1), ctrl 19 (1) +
Time in target quadrant (% of WT) Tg bosu 87.5(15) ctrl 75(10) +
Platform crosses (#) Aβ icv bosu 5.5 (0.5), ctrl 4 (0.25) +
Platform crosses (% WT) Tg bosu 147.5(7.5), ctrl 80(5) +

+++ favoring intervention, highly significant p < 0.001. ++ favoring intervention, significant p < 0.01. + favoring intervention, significant p < 0.05. +/± trend favoring intervention, p < 0.1. ± not significant. +/± trend favoring control, p < 0.1. –favoring control, significant p < 0.05. – favoring control, significant p < 0.01. — favoring control, highly significant p < 0.001. LPS, lipopolysaccharide; MA, treated from middle age; MAD, 3-methyladenine; NR, p-value not reported; OA, treated from old age; Scop, scopolamine; YA, treated from young adulthood.