Table 2.

Electrochemical sensors in the detection of different heavy metal ions in various types of diseases

Diseases	Sample matrix	Analyte	Detection limit	Electrodes used	References
Cancer, lung infections, kidney disorder	Blood	Lead	0.001 µM	Hg	[68]
			1.2 µg dL−1*	Hg/screen-printed	[69]
			0.46 ppb	Hg microelectrode	[76]
			0.03 μg mL−1	Mercury film/carbon	[67]
			–	Bismuth	[77]
			0.23 ppb	Hg-plated pre-anodized screen-printed carbon	[78]
		Cadmium	0.002 µM	Mercury	[68]
			–	Bismuth	[78]
			0.06 μg mL−1	Mercury film/carbon	[67]
			0.1 nM	Nafion-coated mercury-plated glassy carbon	[79]
		Zinc	0.01 µM	Mercury	[69]
			0.6 μg mL−1	Mercury film/carbon	[68]
		Cooper	0.01 µM	Mercury	[69]
			0.02 μg mL−1	Mercury film/carbon	[68]
	Urine	Lead	0.5 ppb	GCE/ferromagnetic rod	[65]
			0.44 ppb	Hg microelectrode	[80]
Hyponatremia	Urine	Sodium	–	Ion-selective (ISE-27504-30; Cole-palmer)	[65]

* Lower limit of linear range in calibration