Table 2.
Quadratic relationships between standardised maternal GWG and offspring cardiometabolic risk factors at 7 years of age
| Phenotype | Standardised GWG category | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| z < −3 (n = 15) | −3 ≤ z < −1 (n = 141) | −1 ≤ z < 1 (n = 378) | 1 ≤ z < 3 (n = 260) | 3 ≤ z < 5 (n = 96) | z ≥ 5 (n = 15) | p linear | p quadratic | p linear | p quadratic | p linear | p quadratic | p linear | p quadratic | p linear | p quadratic | |
| Body size and adiposity traits | ||||||||||||||||
| Body height (cm) | 125 ± 5.38 | 124 ± 4.70 | 124 ± 4.80 | 125 ± 4.75 | 125 ± 6.21 | 126 ± 5.10 | 0.0326 | 0.1301 | 0.0301 | 0.4113 | 0.1321 | 0.2836 | 0.3077 | 0.2594 | 0.8276 | 0.3230 |
| Body weight (kg) | 24.3 ± 6.16 | 22.5 ± 3.81 | 22.6 ± 4.06 | 24.3 ± 4.79 | 24.7 ± 5.71 | 26.5 ± 6.32 | 1.1 × 10−3 | 0.0183 | 7.5 × 10−4 | 0.3005 | 7.6 × 10−3 | 0.2728 | 0.0224 | 0.2528 | 0.9682 | 0.1042 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 15.4 ± 2.89 | 14.6 ± 1.91 | 14.7 ± 2.01 | 15.5 ± 2.36 | 15.7 ± 2.62 | 16.5 ± 3.21 | 1.5 × 10−3 | 0.0544 | 1.0 × 10−3 | 0.5493 | 6.5 × 10−3 | 0.5771 | 6.5 × 10−3 | 0.5771 | – | – |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 55.6 ± 8.33 | 53.2 ± 5.22 | 53.4 ± 5.47 | 55.1 ± 6.31 | 55.6 ± 7.45 | 57.9 ± 7.45 | 9.3 × 10−3 | 0.0614 | 7.0 × 10−3 | 0.5838 | 0.0359 | 0.6491 | 0.0459 | 0.6309 | 0.6432 | 0.9267 |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 65.9 ± 7.76 | 64.0 ± 5.28 | 63.6 ± 5.68 | 65.7 ± 6.11 | 66.5 ± 7.11 | 68.1 ± 7.07 | 7.7 × 10−3 | 0.0282 | 5.8 × 10−3 | 0.3630 | 0.0308 | 0.3819 | 0.0573 | 0.3677 | 0.7290 | 0.4461 |
| Sum of skinfold thicknesses (mm) | 38.6 (24.5–46.9) | 29.6 (23.9–38.8) | 29.4 (24.7–37.7) | 31.4 (25.7–44.5) | 32.9 (26.6–43.4) | 35.3 (29.9–52.6) | 0.4782 | 0.2142 | 0.5463 | 0.9973 | 0.5283 | 0.6574 | 0.2726 | 0.6827 | 0.3018 | 0.7264 |
| Blood pressure | ||||||||||||||||
| SBP (mmHg) | 104 ± 10.2 | 101 ± 8.61 | 101 ± 8.98 | 103 ± 8.52 | 104 ± 9.33 | 105 ± 8.62 | 0.6948 | 0.2949 | 0.6174 | 0.6654 | 0.7601 | 0.7386 | 0.4028 | 0.8100 | 0.9667 | 0.8514 |
| DBP (mmHg) | 63.8 ± 8.70 | 62.0 ± 7.46 | 60.6 ± 7.86 | 62.5 ± 7.53 | 63.8 ± 9.56 | 65.0 ± 7.22 | 0.9339 | 0.0109 | 0.9518 | 0.0422 | 0.9066 | 0.0720 | 0.9026 | 0.0808 | 0.4340 | 0.0703 |
| SBP percentile | 64.8 ± 24.8 | 60.2 ± 24.1 | 58.4 ± 24.3 | 62.2 ± 23.0 | 65.7 ± 23.4 | 66.2 ± 23.2 | 0.6940 | 0.1840 | 0.6243 | 0.4674 | 0.7412 | 0.5230 | 0.4316 | 0.5848 | 0.9713 | 0.6047 |
| DBP percentile | 64.4 ± 20.8 | 61.9 ± 21.2 | 57.2 ± 22.1 | 62.1 ± 20.7 | 64.4 ± 24.0 | 68.1 ± 17.2 | 0.7079 | 6.4 × 10−3 | 0.7967 | 0.0254 | 0.7077 | 0.0417 | 0.8553 | 0.0477 | 0.3065 | 0.0410 |
| Glucose and insulin levels | ||||||||||||||||
| FPG (mmol/l) | 4.62 ± 0.44 | 4.57 ± 0.39 | 4.59 ± 0.34 | 4.54 ± 0.32 | 4.62 ± 0.38 | 4.55 ± 0.39 | 0.5374 | 0.8454 | 0.5916 | 0.9284 | 0.6592 | 0.9321 | 0.8100 | 0.9383 | 0.7419 | 0.9205 |
| 2 h glucose (mmol/l) | 5.61 ± 0.61 | 5.30 ± 0.98 | 5.31 ± 0.94 | 5.24 ± 1.02 | 5.42 ± 0.88 | 5.01 ± 0.80 | 0.1962 | 0.6321 | 0.1898 | 0.9123 | 0.2322 | 0.6998 | 0.3470 | 0.6814 | 0.2130 | 0.6242 |
| AUCglu at 0–120 min | 798 ± 98.1 | 726 ± 121 | 738 ± 116 | 731 ± 127 | 765 ± 107 | 747 ± 123 | 0.5647 | 0.1035 | 0.5461 | 0.1811 | 0.6320 | 0.2677 | 0.8482 | 0.2770 | 0.7961 | 0.2841 |
| FPI (pmol/l) | 12.0 (12.0–34.7) | 13.7 (12.0–27.5) | 12.0 (12.0–23.7) | 14.4 (12.0–29.3) | 14.1 (12.0–31.3) | 17.0 (12.0–23.8) | 0.7739 | 0.5006 | 0.8393 | 0.4346 | 0.7520 | 0.4338 | 0.2948 | 0.4097 | 0.6625 | 0.8614 |
| 2 h insulin (pmol/l) | 93.0 (61.2–250) | 94.2 (54.8–179) | 88.8 (53.8–153) | 108 (66.6–176) | 128 (72.0–203) | 121 (38.2–213) | 0.5257 | 0.1978 | 0.4996 | 0.7464 | 0.4552 | 0.9627 | 0.3909 | 0.9832 | 0.4430 | 0.8031 |
| AUCins at 0–120 min | 15,352 (10,161–26,213) | 13,410 (10,098–20,807) | 13,122 (8070–20,669) | 13,811 (9155–23,450) | 17,588 (11,960–25,812) | 21,308 (9294–24,003) | 0.7073 | 1.4 × 10−3 | 0.6796 | 0.0173 | 0.7919 | 0.0312 | 0.8802 | 0.0381 | 0.3578 | 0.1260 |
| Beta cell function and insulin sensitivity | ||||||||||||||||
| HOMA-β | 50.0 (33.3–100) | 57.1 (40.0–91.3) | 50.0 (36.4–80.0) | 57.1 (40.0–99.1) | 50.8 (36.4–89.6) | 56.6 (40.0–100) | 0.4366 | 0.3353 | 0.4806 | 0.3867 | 0.9570 | 0.2747 | 0.8094 | 0.2636 | 0.4788 | 0.5177 |
| IGI at 30 min | 59.1 (21.9–88.9) | 58.0 (27.6–105) | 47.3 (23.2–91.6) | 64.9 (26.9–117) | 54.8 (27.9–94.3) | 65.4 (34.9–107) | 0.3385 | 0.6721 | 0.3555 | 0.9705 | 0.2914 | 0.8273 | 0.2166 | 0.8171 | 0.7014 | 0.5150 |
| Pancreatic beta cell function | 24.0 (13.9–42.1) | 22.6 (16.3–35.9) | 21.1 (13.1–31.8) | 22.7 (15.2–38.1) | 26.9 (17.4–38.1) | 34.0 (14.7–47.8) | 0.7008 | 3.7 × 10−3 | 0.6398 | 0.0302 | 0.7244 | 0.0455 | 0.9161 | 0.0469 | 0.3359 | 0.1016 |
| HOMA-IR | 0.42 (0.38–1.13) | 0.45 (0.40–0.89) | 0.43 (0.40–0.86) | 0.48 (0.40–1.01) | 0.47 (0.41–1.20) | 0.58 (0.38–0.86) | 0.9276 | 0.4631 | 0.9827 | 0.9872 | 0.9702 | 0.9773 | 0.6029 | 0.9403 | 0.8200 | 0.6900 |
| Matsuda ISI | 13.5 (8.31–18.9) | 15.1 (9.83–20.7) | 15.5 (10.5–22.0) | 14.7 (8.70–20.1) | 13.1 (8.14–16.9) | 13.8 (8.68–18.4) | 0.9534 | 4.9 × 10−3 | 0.9160 | 0.0401 | 0.9276 | 0.0462 | 0.8531 | 0.0454 | 0.3880 | 0.0638 |
Data are expressed as percentage (n), mean ± SD, or median (Q1–Q3)
plinear and pquadratic refer to p values obtained from the linear regression analysis for linear and quadratic terms, respectively
Model 1: adjusted for sex and age at childhood; further adjusted for childhood height for sum of skinfold thickness and blood pressure; model 2: model 1 + maternal pre-pregnant BMI; further adjusted for current maternal hypertensive status for blood pressure; or further adjusted for current maternal and paternal diabetes status for glucose and insulin levels, as well as indices for beta cell function and insulin sensitivity; model 3: model 2 + parity, maternal age, maternal AUCglu during pregnancy, mode of delivery, gestational age at delivery, history of breastfeeding and childhood exercise level; model 4: model 3 + birthweight; model 5: model 4 + childhood BMI