Table 2.

Comparison of selected fruit morphological & anatomical characters of for Spondioideae

Genus	Typical Maximum dimensions of endocarp (mm)	Endocarp shape & symmetry	Germination mechanism	Endocarp surface	Endocarp apertures	Locule number	Lacunae (at equator)	Locule outline, sagittal section	Locular envelope composition
Allospondias	16 L; 10 W	obovoid, prolate; radially symmetrical; rounded to polygonal in ts	apical pores, recessed bilabiate	finely reticulate & striate; with elongate lateral depressions	absent	2–5	present; same number as locules; can be large & circular	straight	1) inner layer ca. 5-seriate of horizontal fibers; 2) surrounding layer 0.2–0.3 mm, of isodiametric brachysclereids
Antrocaryon	14 L; 25 W to 22 L; 35 W	oblate to subglobose, radially symmetrical; circular to pentagonal in ts	simple plug-like opercula near apex	minutely reticulate to smooth with scattered dimples	whorl of small basal apertures alternating with locules	5	present; same number as locules	curved	0.2–0.4 mm: 1) brachysclereids few-seriate; 2) interwoven tracts of fibers
Attilaea	12 L; 8 W	prolate, obovoid; bisymmetrical; elliptical in ts	apical pore, recessed bilabiate	ribbed, reticulate	a few prominent near apex	1	present on both sides of locule	not seen in ls, but certainly elongate	0.1 to 0.2 mm: horizontal encircling fibers
Buchanania	8 L; 6 W	prolate, subglobose; bisymmetrical with dorsal keel, rounded to lensoidal in ts	not obvious, possibly splitting apically	smooth	absent	1	absent	straight	ca. 0.3–0.4 mm: variously oriented elongate brachysclereids
Campnosperma	10 L; 9 W	prolate, obovoid, rounded in ts	unspecialized/ not obvious	smooth	absent	1	one central cylindrical	strongly curved	lacking; endocarp of isodiametric sclereids
Choerospondias	23 L; 17 W	prolate; radially symmetrical; circular in ts	apical pores, recessed bilabiate	smooth & finely fibrous with scattered punctae	whorl of small basal apertures alternating with locules & scattered smaller apertures	5 (3–6)	present; 2× number of locules near equator	straight	0.2–0.8 mm: 1) isodiametric sclereids 1- to few-seriate; 2) 60 to 100 μm layer encircling horizontal fibers
Cyrtocarpa type 1 (C. procera, others)	20 L; 13 W	prolate; obovoid; asymmetrical; subcircular in ts	simple plug-like opercula apical & basal	smooth & minutely reticulate	absent	3–5	present	straight to slightly curved	0.2–0.3 mm: anticlinal fibers
Cyrtocarpa type 2 (C. velutinifolia)	15 L; 11 W	prolate, elliptical, bisymmetrical (with keel); elliptical in ts	simple plug-like operculum near apex	smooth, punctate	scattered	1	present	curved	<0.1 mm: encircling horizontal fibers
Cyrtocarpa type 3 (C. caatingae)	13 L; 5.5 W; 10D	prolate, elliptical; bisymmetrical (with keel)	apical pore, recessed bilabiate	ribbed, punctate	scattered	1	present on both sides of locule	curved	0.2–0.3 mm: isodiametric brachysclereids
Dracontomelon	25 L; 33 W	oblate to subglobose; radially symmetrical to strongly asymmetrical; circular to polygonal in ts	simple plug-like opercula in apical half of stone	smooth, ridged, grooved	10 equatorial depressions with channels to lacunae	5 (−4)	present; samenumber as locules	curved	0.3 mm: encircling horizontal fibers
Haematostaphis	18 L; 11 W	prolate, elliptical; bisymmetrical (with keel); subcircular in ts	apical bipartite (shutter-like) operculum	finely reticulate	scattered	1	absent	straight	0.25 mm: encircling horizontal fibers
Haplospondias	7 L; 3 W	prolate, elliptical; bisymmetrical (with keel); ~elliptical to lenticular in ts	apical, external bivalvate	reticulate & ribbed	absent	1	absent	straight	0.1 mm: a few rows of encircling horizontal fibers
Harpephyllum	25 L; 13 W	prolate, obovoid; bisymmetrical (with dorsal keel) to ~ radially symmetrical at base; ~irregularly rounded in ts	apical pores, recessed bilabiate	ribbed, reticulate	absent	1–2	irregular lacunae	slightly curved	0.5–1.0 mm: mixed anticlinal fibers & isodiametric brachysclereids
Koordersiodendron	30 L; 7 W; 18 D	prolate, bisymmetrical (with keel); elliptical to lenticular in ts	apical split	strongly fibrous with minor ribs	absent	1	absent	straight	ca. 0.07 mm: uniseriate encircling fibers; or) uni- to biseriate with slightly anticlinally elongate brachysclereids
Lannea	1.2 L; 4 W; 6 D	prolate, reniform, bisymmetrical (with keel); elliptical to lenticular in ts	simple plug-like operculum near apex	strongly reticulate to ribbed	sometimes scattered, minute	1	absent	weakly to strongly curved	0.15 to 0.2 mm: mostly horizontal & periclinal fibers
Operculicarya	11 L; 5 W; 7 D	prolate, irregularly ovoid to subglobose, asymmetrical; irregularly rounded to polygonal in ts	simple plug-like operculum near apex	~smooth, minutely fibrous	sometimes scattered, minute	1, rarely 2	absent	strongly curved	thin; 0.05 mm: brachysclereids
Pegia	13 L; 5 W; 7 D	prolate, obovoid; bisymmetrical (with keel); elliptical in ts	unspecialized or apical splitting	prominently ribbed & grooved in a reticulate pattern	absent	1, rarely 2	absent	straight	0.2–0.4 mm: 1 to 3 seriate brachysclereids
Pleiogynium	18 L; 29 W	oblate, globose, turbinate; radially symmetrical; rounded polygonal in ts	apical pores, recessed bilabiate	smooth to punctate, & basally radially striate or ribbed.	absent	5–12	present; same number as locules	curved	0.5 mm: periclinal, horizontally arranged fibers or elongate brachysclereids
Poupartia type 1 (e.g., P. borbonica, P. gummifera)	10 L; 5 W	prolate, obovoid; asymmetrical; irregularly pentagonal in ts	simple plug-like opercula/operculum near apex	irregularly ribbed & covered with small depressions	absent	1–3	absent?	straight to slightly curved	0.05 mm; very thin: isodiametric brachysclereids
Poupartia type 2 (P. chapelieri)	11 L; 6 W	prolate, bisymmetrical; elliptical in ts	simple plug-like opercula/operculum near apex	finely striate	absent?	2	absent	straight to curved	0.1 mm; isodiametric brachysclereids
Poupartia type 3 (P. minor, P. orientalis, P. silvatica)	17 L; 15 W	prolate to sub globose; ± radially symmetrical; circular to irregularly pentagonal in ts	simple plug-like opercula /operculum near apex	smooth	whorl of basal apertures alternating with locules	4–5	present; same number as locules	curved	0.1 mm: dense, encircling horizontal fibers & some brachysclereids
Poupartiopsis	63 L; 43 W	prolate, elliptical; radially symmetrical; circular in ts	apical pores, recessed bilabiate	conspicuously spinose, with fine, elongate hooked projections	absent	3–4	not obvious	curved	0.15–0.2 mm: encircling horizontal fibers
Pseudospondias	~17 L; 11 W	prolate, oblong, obovoid; bisymmetrical (with keel) to radially symmetrical; ~circular to polygonal in ts	apical bipartite (shutter-like) opercula	mostly smooth with prominent longitudinal ribs	absent	4–5 (1–6)	present, small, alternating with locules	straight	0.1–0.2 mm: encircling horizontal fibers
Sclerocarya	30 L; 17 W	prolate, obovoid-subglobose, oblate; bisymmetrical (without keel) to radially symmetrical; elliptical to subcircular in ts	simple plug-like opercula near apex	~smooth, minutely reticulate	whorl of 3–5 basal apertures alternating with locules	2–4	a pair of crescent-shaped lacunae flanking each locule, plus scattered irregular lacunae	straight to slightly curved	0.3–0.6 mm: encircling horizontal fibers
Solenocarpus	9 L; 5 W; 6 D	prolate, reniform; bisymmetrical (with keel); elliptical, lenticular in ts	apical, external bivalvate	minutely reticulate to strongly ribbed	absent	1	absent	straight	0.1 mm: encircling horizontal fibers, surrounded by 0.3–0.6 mm layer of isodiametric sclereids
Spondias	44 L; 33 W	oblate to prolate, ovoid to obovoid; radially symmetrical, circular to elliptical in ts	apical pores, recessed bilabiate	strongly reticulate, pitted, spinose, fibrous, smooth	apparently absent	5 (rarely fewer)	alternating with locules, in New World species containing longitudinal rows of orbicules	straight	0.1–0.3 mm: encircling horizontal fibers
Tapirira	25 L; 13 W; 16 D	prolate, bisymmetrical (with keel); lenticular to elliptical in ts	unspecialized/ not obvious	reticulate, finely ribbed	absent	1	absent	straight	0.15 to 0.5 mm: encircling fibers
“Tapirira” mexicana	22 L; 11 W; 12 D	prolate; bisymmetrical (with keel); elliptical in ts	apical pore, recessed bilabiate	longitudinally & obliquely ribbed	both apical & scattered	1	absent	straight	0.18 mm: brachysclereids,

D Depth, L Length, W Width, ts Transverse section