eTable 4. Study characteristics and results for the secondary endpoint safety.
| Study | Intervention | Duration | Frequency and time | e | n | Severity (able to walk unaided) | Risk of bias (generation of randomization sequence) | Risk of bias (concealment of randomization sequence) | Risk of bias (blinding of investigators) | Months after stroke |
| Ada 2003 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 4 weeks | 30 min 3× per week | 3 | 14 | No | Low | Low | Low | 28.00 |
| Ada 2003 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 30 min 3× per week | 0 | 15 | No | Low | Low | Low | 26.00 |
| Ada 2010 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 4 weeks | 30 min 3× per week | 0 | 64 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.59 |
| Ada 2010 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 30 min 3× per week | 0 | 62 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.59 |
| Aschbacher 2006 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 3 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 1 | 11 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear |
| Aschbacher 2006 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 3 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 3 | 12 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear |
| Baer 2017 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 8 weeks | More than 2× per week | 2 | 35 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 1.39 |
| Baer 2017 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 8 weeks | More than 2× per week | 0 | 34 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 1.32 |
| Bang 2016 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 4 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 0 | 9 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 12.00 |
| Bang 2016 | Treadmill training | 4 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 0 | 9 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 13.00 |
| Brincks 2011 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 3 weeks | Unclear | 0 | 7 | Yes | Low | Low | High | 1.84 |
| Brincks 2011 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 3 weeks | Unclear | 0 | 6 | Yes | Low | Low | High | 0.69 |
| Buesing 2015 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 6 to 8 weeks | 3× per week to max. 18 sessions | 0 | 25 | Yes | Low | High | Low | 84.00 |
| Buesing 2015 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 6 to 8 weeks | 3× per week to max. 18 sessions | 0 | 25 | Yes | Low | High | Low | 60.00 |
| Chang 2012 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 1.5 weeks | 100 min 5× per week | 3 | 24 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 0.53 |
| Chang 2012 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 1.5 weeks | 100 min 5× per week | 4 | 24 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 0.59 |
| Cho 2015 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 8 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 0 | 13 | No | Unclear | High | High | 15 |
| Cho 2015 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 8 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 0 | 7 | No | Unclear | High | High | 13 |
| Chua 2016 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 8 weeks | Unclear | 7 | 53 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.89 |
| Chua 2016 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 8 weeks | Unclear | 13 | 53 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.99 |
| da Cunha Filho 2002 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 2 to 3 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 7 | No | Low | High | High | 0.52 |
| da Cunha Filho 2002 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 2 to 3 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 8 | No | Low | High | High | 0.62 |
| Dias 2006 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 5 weeks | 5× per week | 0 | 20 | Yes | Unclear | Low | High | 47.00 |
| Dias 2006 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 5 weeks | 5× per week | 0 | 10 | Yes | Unclear | Low | High | 48.00 |
| Duncan 2011 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 12 to 16 weeks | 90 min 3× per week | 104 | 282 | No | Unclear | Low | High | 4.00 |
| Duncan 2011 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 12 to 16 weeks | 90 min 3× per week | 35 | 126 | No | Unclear | Low | High | 2.00 |
| Eich 2004 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 6 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 25 | Yes | Low | Low | Unclear | 1.40 |
| Eich 2004 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 6 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 25 | Yes | Low | Low | Unclear | 1.45 |
| Fisher 2008 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 24 units | 3–5× per week | 3 | 10 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Unclear |
| Fisher 2008 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 24 units | 3–5× per week | 0 | 10 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Low | Unclear |
| Forrester 2014 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 8 to 10 sessions | 60 min | 3 | 21 | No | Unclear | High | High | 0.39 |
| Forrester 2014 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 8 to 10 sessions | 60 min | 2 | 18 | No | Unclear | High | High | 0.36 |
| Franceschini 2009 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 5 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 2 | 52 | No | Low | Unclear | Low | 0.56 |
| Franceschini 2009 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 5 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 0 | 50 | No | Low | Unclear | Low | 0.46 |
| Gama 2007 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 6 weeks | 45 min 3× per week | 0 | 16 | Yes | Low | Unclear | High | 60.00 |
| Gama 2007 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 6 weeks | 45 min 3× per week | 0 | 16 | Yes | Low | Unclear | High | 54.00 |
| Geroin 2011 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 2 weeks | 50 min 5× per week | 0 | 20 | Yes | Low | Low | High | 26.00 |
| Geroin 2011 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 2 weeks | 50 min 5× per week | 0 | 10 | Yes | Low | Low | High | 27.00 |
| Han 2016 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 4 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 0 | 30 | No | Unclear | Unclear | Low | 0.73 |
| Han 2016 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 4 | 30 | No | Unclear | Unclear | Low | 0.59 |
| Hidler 2009 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 8 to 10 weeks | 45 min 3× per week | 3 | 36 | Yes | Low | Unclear | High | 3.65 |
| Hidler 2009 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 8 to 10 weeks | 45 min 3× per week | 6 | 36 | Yes | Low | Unclear | High | 4.57 |
| Hornby 2008 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 12 sessions | 30 min | 4 | 31 | Yes | Low | Low | High | 50.00 |
| Hornby 2008 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 12 sessions | 30 min | 10 | 31 | Yes | Low | Low | High | 73.00 |
| Husemann 2007 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 4 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 1 | 17 | No | Low | Low | Low | 2.60 |
| Husemann 2007 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 1 | 15 | No | Low | Low | Low | 2.93 |
| Jaffe 2004 | Treadmill training | 2 weeks | 60 min 3× per week | 0 | 11 | Yes | High | Unclear | Low | 46.80 |
| Jaffe 2004 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 2 weeks | 60 min 3× per week | 0 | 12 | Yes | High | Unclear | Low | 43.20 |
| Kim 2011 | Treadmill training | 6 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 20 | Yes | Unclear | High | Unclear | 15.00 |
| Kim 2011 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 6 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 24 | Yes | Unclear | High | Unclear | 14.00 |
| Kyung 2008 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 4 weeks | 45 min 3× per week | 1 | 18 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 22.00 |
| Kyung 2008 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 45 min 3× per week | 9 | 17 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 29.00 |
| Laufer 2001 | Treadmill training | 3 weeks | 8 to 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 15 | No | High | High | Low | 1.07 |
| Laufer 2001 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 3 weeks | 8 to 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 14 | No | High | High | Low | 1.18 |
| Liston 2000 | Treadmill training | 4 weeks | 60 min 3× per week | 2 | 10 | Unclear | Low | High | Low | Unclear |
| Liston 2000 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 60 min 3× per week | 0 | 8 | Unclear | Low | High | Low | Unclear |
| MacKay-Lyons 2013 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 6 weeks | 40 min 6× per week | 0 | 24 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 0.76 |
| MacKay-Lyons 2013 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 6 weeks | 40 min 6× per week | 0 | 26 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 0.76 |
| Macko 2005 | Treadmill training | 24 weeks | 40 min 3× per week | 11 | 32 | Yes | Low | High | Low | 35.00 |
| Macko 2005 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 24 weeks | 40 min 3× per week | 0 | 29 | Yes | Low | High | Low | 39.00 |
| Mayr 2008 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 8 weeks | 45 min 5× per week | 4 | 37 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear |
| Mayr 2008 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 8 weeks | 45 min 5× per week | 9 | 37 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear |
| Morone 2011 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 4 weeks | 40 min 5× per week | 12 | 24 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.62 |
| Morone 2011 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 40 min 5× per week | 9 | 24 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.66 |
| Nilsson 2001 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 9 to 10 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 36 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.72 |
| Nilsson 2001 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 9 to 10 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 37 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.56 |
| Noser 2012 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | Unclear | Unclear | 0 | 11 | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Low | 44.52 |
| Noser 2012 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | Unclear | Unclear | 1 | 10 | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Low | 17.26 |
| Ochi 2015 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 4 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 13 | No | Unclear | Unclear | Low | 0.76 |
| Ochi 2015 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 13 | No | Unclear | Unclear | Low | 0.85 |
| Peurala 2005 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 3 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 30 | Sometimes | Low | Low | High | 30.00 |
| Peurala 2005 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 3 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 15 | Sometimes | Low | Low | High | 48.00 |
| Peurala 2009 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 3 weeks | 55 min 3× per week | 5 | 22 | Sometimes | Low | Low | High | 0.26 |
| Peurala 2009 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 3 weeks | 55 min 3× per week | 4 | 34 | Sometimes | Low | Low | High | 0.26 |
| Picelli 2016 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 1 Woche | 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 11 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 72.00 |
| Picelli 2016 | No walking rehabilitation | ND | ND | 0 | 11 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 72.00 |
| Pohl 2002 | Treadmill training with speed paradigm | 4 weeks | 30 min 3× per week | 1 | 44 | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | High | 3.80 |
| Pohl 2002 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 45 min 3× per week | 0 | 25 | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | High | 3.71 |
| Pohl 2007 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 4 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 5 | 77 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.97 |
| Pohl 2007 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 6 | 78 | No | Low | Low | Low | 1.04 |
| Richards 1993 | Treadmill training | 5 weeks | 105 min 5× per week | 0 | 10 | No | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 0.43 |
| Richards 1993 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 5 weeks | 105 min 5× per week | 0 | 8 | No | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 0.43 |
| Richards 2004 | Treadmill training | 8 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 2 | 32 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 0.27 |
| Richards 2004 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 8 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 1 | 31 | Yes | Low | Low | Low | 0.29 |
| Saltuari 2004 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 2 weeks | ABA study; in phase A 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 8 | Sometimes | Low | Unclear | Unclear | 3.60 |
| Saltuari 2004 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 2 weeks | ABA study; in phase A 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 8 | Sometimes | Low | Unclear | Unclear | 1.90 |
| Scheidt-mann 1999 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 3 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 0 | 15 | No | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 1.71 |
| Scheidtmann 1999 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 3 weeks | 60 min 5× per week | 0 | 15 | nein | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 1.71 |
| Schwartz 2006 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 6 weeks | 3× per week | 4 | 37 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Hoch | 0.72 |
| Schwartz 2006 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 6 weeks | 3× per week | 2 | 30 | Sometimes | Unclear | Unclear | Hoch | 0.79 |
| Smith 2008 | Treadmill training | 4 weeks | 12 sessions of 20 min | 0 | 10 | ja | Unclear | Unclear | Hoch | Unclear |
| Smith 2008 | No walking rehabilitation | ND | ND | 0 | 10 | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | High | Unclear |
| Stein 2014 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 6 weeks | 60 min 3× per week | 0 | 12 | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Low | 49.00 |
| Stein 2014 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 6 weeks | 60 min 3× per week | 0 | 12 | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Low | 89.00 |
| Tanaka 2012 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | ABA study; in phase B 20 min circa 2–3× per week | 0 | 7 | Yes | Low | Unclear | High | 55.00 |
| Tanaka 2012 | No walking rehabilitation | ND | ND | 0 | 5 | Yes | Low | Unclear | High | 65.00 |
| Toledano-Zarhi 2011 | Treadmill training | 6 weeks | 90 min 2× per week | 0 | 14 | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 0.36 |
| Toledano-Zarhi 2011 | No walking rehabilitation | ND | ND | 0 | 14 | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | 0.36 |
| Tong 2006 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 4 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 33 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.58 |
| Tong 2006 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 4 | 21 | No | Low | Low | Low | 0.62 |
| Ucar 2014 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 2 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 11 | Yes | Low | Unclear | Low | Unclear |
| Ucar 2014 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 2 weeks | 30 min 5× per week | 0 | 11 | Yes | Low | Unclear | Low | Unclear |
| Van Nunen 2012 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 8 weeks | 30 min 2× per week | 0 | 16 | Sometimes | Unclear | Low | High | 2.10 |
| Van Nunen 2012 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 8 weeks | 60 min 1× per week | 0 | 14 | Sometimes | Unclear | Low | High | 2.10 |
| Visintin 1998 | Treadmill training | 6 weeks | 20 min 4× per week | 0 | 50 | Sometimes | Low | Low | Low | 2.24 |
| Visintin 1998 | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 6 weeks | 20 min 4× per week | 0 | 50 | Sometimes | Low | Low | Low | 2.56 |
| Waldman 2013 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 6 weeks | 60 min 3× per week | 0 | 12 | Yes | Unclear | High | High | 41.00 |
| Waldman 2013 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 6 weeks | 60 min 3× per week | 0 | 12 | Yes | Unclear | High | High | 30.00 |
| Watanabe 2014 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 4 weeks | 20 min, max. 12 sessions | 6 | 17 | No | Low | Unclear | High | 1.94 |
| Watanabe 2014 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 20 min, max. 12 sessions | 4 | 15 | No | Low | Unclear | High | 1.68 |
| Werner 2002a | Treadmill training with body-weight support | 2 weeks | 15 to 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 15 | No | Low | Low | Unclear | 1.70 |
| Werner 2002a | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with end-effector | 2 weeks | 20 min 5× per week | 0 | 15 | No | Low | Low | Unclear | 1.59 |
| Westlake 2009 | Electromechanical-assisted walking training with exoskeleton | 4 weeks | 30 min 3× per week | 0 | 8 | Yes | Unclear | Low | High | 44.00 |
| Westlake 2009 | Conventional walking rehabilitation | 4 weeks | 30 min 3× per week | 0 | 8 | Yes | Unclear | Low | High | 37.00 |
ABA, A-B-A study design (A = baseline phase, B = intervention phase); ND, no data; SD, standard deviation