Fig. 5.

Increased toxic IAPP oligomers induce the disruption of cell membranes, resulting in β-cell failure. a Increased toxic IAPP oligomers induce the disruption of cell membranes, leading to β-cell dysfunction and mass reduction and eventually β-cell failure. IAPP molecules reach CNS, possibly influencing the exacerbation of Alzheimer’s disease. b Toxic IAPP oligomers in β-cells and islet amyloids progressively increase during aging under the influences of risk factors of T2D, inducing β-cell dysfunction and mass reduction, and result in β-cell failure