Table 1.

Examples multi-level risk factors (13).

INDIVIDUAL FACTORS
Exposure to opioids in utero
Low birth weight
Failure to thrive
Early antisocial behaviors (e.g., lying and impulsivity)
Low self-worth and low self esteem
Depression
Delinquency and history of legal problems
Rejection of adult values
Low social bonding
FAMILY
Parental rejection and inadequate nurturing
Low bonding and attachment from birth
Parental permissiveness
Inadequate supervision and neglect
Inconsistencies in parental discipline and parenting practices
Family separation or lack of family closeness
Poor family communication
Family conflict (persistent)
Family history of alcohol or drug dependence
Child physical abuse and sexual abuse
Poverty and low family income
SCHOOL
Poor school readiness
Early adjustment difficulties
Conduct disorder
Impulsivity and aggression at school
Poor interpersonal relationships at school
Low commitment to and poor academic performance
Low bonding and attachment to school
Low involvement in extracurricular activities
Poor attendance, truancy, or dropping out of school
PEER
Susceptibility to peer pressure
Friends who have favorable attitudes toward or use alcohol, tobacco, or other drugs
Rejection by peers
Aggression toward peers (persistent)
Victim of bullying