Table 3.
Lead biosensors. Receptor molecules are listed in column one. Lead detection limits of each sensor with the linear range in parenthesis (if known) are listed in column two
| Ion-selective receptor molecule | Detection limit (linear range) | Sensor mechanism | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| GR-5 DNAzyme | 0.9 pM (2–1000 pM) | Electrochemiluminescence using the GR-5 lead-dependent DNAzyme and Pb-induced release of ruthenium tris (1,10-phenanthroline) (Ru(phen)32þ) | Gao et al. 2013 |
| CNTs | 1.2 pM | Colorimetric and electrochemical microfluidic paper-based analytical devices using screen-printing multi-walled CNTs | Rattanarat et al. 2014 |
| Porous magnesium oxide nano-flowers | 2.1 pM (3.3–22 nM) | Porous magnesium oxide nano-flowers sensitive electrode monitoring using square-wave anodic stripping voltammetry | Wei et al. 2012 |
| DNAzymes and CdS QDs modified ssDNA | 7.8 pM | Biosensor based on DNAzyme, rolling circle amplification (RCA) and CdS QDs modified ssDNA | Tang et al. 2013 |
| Self-doped polyaniline nanofibers | 0.2 nM (5–80 nM) | Square-wave anodic stripping voltammetry using glassy carbon electrode modified with self-doped polyaniline nanofibers/mesoporous carbon nitride (and bismuth) | Zhang et al. 2016a, b, c |
| CNTs | 0.24 nM (0.48–106 nM) | Differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry using glassy carbon electrode modified with Nafion, poly(2,5-dimercapto-1,3,4-thiadiazole) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes | He et al. 2011 |
| C18 silica monolith column | 0.36 nM (0.24–24 μM) | Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography | Thirumalai et al. 2018 |
| G-rich DNA | 0.4 nM (1 nM–1 mM) | Pb2+-induced G-rich DNA conformational switch from a random-coil to G-quadruplex (G4) with crystal violet as the G4-binding indicator | Li et al. 2011a, b |
| Silica nanoparticles | 0.48 nM (4.8–145 nM) | Screen-printed carbon electrode modified with functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles | Sánchez et al. 2010 |
| Nano-structured polymer nanoparticles | 0.6 nM (1.0 to 0.08 nM) | Voltammetry using carbon-paste electrodes modified with nano-structured ion-imprinted polymer nanoparticles | Alizadeh and Amjadi 2011 |
| DNAzyme | 0.5 nM (1 nM–1 μM) | Amperometric sensing platform for detection of Pb-based on horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-mimicking DNAzyme-catalysed template-guided deposition of polyaniline (PANI) that catalysed the oxidation of anilineto PANI with H2O2 | Li et al. 2013a, b |
| G-rich DNA with redox probe | 0.5 nM | Conformational switch from hairpin DNA to G-quadruplex induced by Pb2+ by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in the presence of [Fe(CN)6]3−/4− as the redox probe | Lin et al. 2011 |
| Nano hydroxyapatite | 1 nM | Voltammetry using a nafion conductive matrix and a modified glassy carbon electrode for composed of nanosized hydroxyapatite coupled to an ionophore | Pan et al. 2009 |
| Bismuth nanoparticles | 2.7 nM | Nano composite of reduced graphene oxide–bismuth nanoparticles | Sahoo et al. 2013 |
| DNAzymes and SYBER Green I | 5 nM (0–50 nM) | Fluorescence based on DNAzyme activation and cDNA strang cleavage via an RNA site | Ravikumar et al. 2017 |
| Au NP-functionalized graphene | 10 nM (50–1000 nM) | Fluorescence using Au NP-functionalized graphene in the presence of both thiosulfate and 2-mercaptoethanol | Fu et al. 2012 |
| Graphene QDs and Au NPs | 16.7 nM (50 nM–4 μM) | Fluorescence using graphene QDs and Au NPs | Niu et al. 2018 |
| Phormidium sp. | 25 nM (50 nM–20 μM) | Voltammetry using non-immobilised whole cells | Yüce et al. 2010 |
| Whole-cell bacterial fluorescence | 33 nM | Staphylococcus aureus strain RN4220 and Bacillus subtilis strain BR151 employing the regulatory sequence from the cadA gene of plasmid pI258 | Tauriainen et al. 1998 |
| Fluorescence-labelled oligonucleotides | 61 nM (0.1–1 μM) | Fluorescence using a fluorescence-labelled aptamer from complex with a quencher-labelled short complementary sequence | Chen et al. 2018 |
| Gram-negative whole-cell bacteria | 0.97 μM | Plasmid-based whole-cell Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacterial biosensors using the PAO1(pBBpbrRgfp) genetic element | Bereza-Malcolm et al. 2016 |
| Anabaena torulosa | 0.1 μM (0.5–5 μM) | Whole-cell entrapment on cellulose membrane | Wong et al. 2013 |
| Au NPs | 0.1 μM | Surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SERS) utilising 2-mercaptoisonicotinic acid-modified Au NPs | Zamarion et al. 2008 |
| DNAzyme | 0.3 μM | Electrochemical sensor based on 8–17 lead-dependent DNAzyme immobilised on a gold electrode | Xiao et al. 2007 |
| 6-Carboxyfluorescein and Cy5 | 1 μM | Visual detection using Au NPs, DNAzyme microparticles and 6-carboxyfluorescein and Cy5 | Kim and Lee 2016 |
| Graphene QDs | 2 μM (30–100 μM) | Fluorescent using unfolded fullerene QDs | Ciotta et al. 2017 |
CNTs carbon nanotubes, Au NPs gold nanoparticles, ssDNA single-stranded DNA, QDs quantum dots