Table 2.

A summary of peer-reviewed studies on biathlon shooting technical factors and shooting performance.

Reference	Aim	Subjects	Major findings
Baca and Kornfeind (2012)63	To analyze the stability of aiming by elite biathletes	World Cup (n = 4) and European Cup (n = 5) biathletes	The video-based system revealed that the top-level athletes exhibited more stable horizontal and vertical motion of the muzzle
Grebot and Burtheret (2007)70	To measure the forces exerted on the butt plate by the shoulder of the biathlete during prone and standing shooting	2 males and 2 females members of a national team (age: 26.5 years)	Athletes showed lower force on the butt plate in the prone position owing to fatigue. In general, this force during prone shooting was higher than when standing. The authors also found a difference between these 2 positions with respect to positioning of the butt plate on the shoulder
Groslambert et al. (1998)109	To investigate the cardioventilatory responses of elite biathlon athletes when shooting while standing	3 males, 1 female member of a national team (Olympic participants)	Reduced ventilatory exchange was suggested to enhance the ability to hold the rifle effectively
Groslambert et al. (1999) 41	To validate 3 simple tests of biathlon shooting abilities—visual reaction time in both the standing and prone positions as well as a tremometer test in the standing position	24 subjects (19 males, 5 females) at 2 different levels: national team members (n = 12; age: 20 years) and nonexpert members of a regional team (n = 12; age: 19 years)	Visual reaction time and the results of the tremometer test were correlated with shooting performance
Groslambert et al. (2003)67	To examine the effects of autogenic and imagery training on stability of hold, heart rate, and standing shooting performance after heavy physical exercise	16 members (12 males, 4 females) of a national team (age: 21.5 years)	A training program including autogenic and imagery content improved standing shooting performance substantially by increasing postural control and holding ability
Hoffman et al. (1992)31	To assess the shooting performance of elite biathletes immediately after exercise of varying intensity	13 members (6 males, 7 females) of a national team	Exercise intensity had minimal effect on shooting accuracy in the prone position, but did affect standing shooting by altering the stability of hold
Ihalainen et al. (2018)48	To identify determinants of biathlon standing shooting performance at rest and after intense exercise	17 subjects (11 males, 6 females) at 2 different levels: a national senior (n = 8; age: 25.5 years) and national junior team (n = 9; age: 17.9 years)	Clean triggering (i.e., motion of the aiming point 0–0.2 s before firing) and vertical stability exerted most influence on shooting performance both at rest and after exercise. Postural balance, mainly in the shooting direction, was related to the cleanness of triggering and vertical holding ability
Laaksonen et al. (2011)68	To test the hypothesis that combined relaxation and specifically designed shooting training enhance shooting by biathletes	20 subjects (13 males, 7 females) at the national and international (up to World Cup) levels; age: 20 years for the experimental group and 19 years for the control group	Combined relaxation and specific shooting training (holding and routine shooting maneuvers without ammunition) enhanced shooting performance
Larue et al. (1989)110	To compare the body–gun stability of biathletes and rifle shooters in the standing position	8 subjects: 2 experts and 2 novice rifle shooters, 2 experts and 2 novice biathlon shooters	Expert biathlete and rifle shooters use different strategies regarding rifle oscillation and center-of-pressure-displacement, adapting to their respective disciplines
Niinimaa and McAvoy (1983)40	To analyze stance stability while standing at rest with and without aiming an air rifle. Body sway was measured at rest and after a bout of simulated cross-country ski racing	16 males subjects: a control group with no previous shooting experience, groups of rookie and established biathletes, and experienced rifle shooters	Body sway was greater during aiming than while simply standing at rest, and also greater during aiming after exercise than at rest. Body sway was less in experienced shooters than rookies. Motion in the anteroposterior direction was approximately twice the lateral movement
Sattlecker et al. (2014)32	To compare the biomechanics of young and elite biathletes and to examine the relationship between rifle and body sway and shooting performance	36 subjects (27 males, 9 females) at 3 different levels: World Cup (n = 8; age: 27.4 years), European Cup (n = 13, age: 20.2 years), young athletes (n = 15, age: 17.4 years)	Young athletes demonstrated more pronounced rifle and body sway than World and European Cup athletes. Rifle and body sway were correlated with the shooting score, mainly across the shooting direction
Sattlecker et al. (2017)33	To identify factors discriminating high- from low-scoring biathletes both at rest and under loading	22 subjects (14 males, 8 females) at 3 different levels: World Cup (n = 7; age: 24.3 years), European Cup (n = 7, age: 21.1 years, young athletes (n = 8, age: 16.6 years)	With prone shooting, shoulder force in the resting condition and vertical rifle motion after intense roller skiing were the main discriminators between high- and low-scoring athletes. In the case of standing shooting, several parameters related to body and rifle sway were discriminators at rest
Simoneau et al. (1997)59	To analyze metabolic activation and its effects on the stance stability and shooting performance of biathletes	Recreational athletes and highly skilled biathletes	Metabolic activation, induced by skiing, decreases postural control during biathlon standing shooting. The authors also found that skilled athletes were less affected by fatigue, suggesting that skill can attenuate this influence of fatigue on balance control