Table 6.
Summary of biological properties of Vangueria madagascariensis extracts.
| Property assessed | Extract | Plant part | Model | Biological effects | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antibacterial | Decoction extracts | Ripe fruit | Disc diffusion | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with 10.7 ± 1.2 mm zone of inhibition | [13] |
| Unripe fruit | Disc diffusion | Active against Escherichia coli with 12.7 ± 0.6 mm zone of inhibition | [13] | ||
| Methanol | Leaf | Disc diffusion | Active against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus with 10.0 ± 2.0 mm and 11.7 ± 1.5 mm zones of inhibition, respectively | [13] | |
| Seed | Disc diffusion | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with 8.3 ± 1.5 mm zone of inhibition | [13] | ||
| Decoction extracts | Ripe fruit | Microtitre dilution broth method | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with an MIC value of 12.5 mg/mL | [13] | |
| Unripe fruit | Microtitre dilution broth method | Active against Escherichia coli with an MIC value of 25.0 mg/mL | [13] | ||
| Methanol | Leaf | Microtitre dilution broth method | Active against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus with MIC values of 6.3 mg/mL and 12.5 mg/mL, respectively | [13] | |
| Seed | Microtitre dilution broth method | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with an MIC value of 25.0 mg/mL | [13] | ||
| Decoction extracts | Fruit | Microtitre dilution broth method | Active against Streptococcus group A with an MIC value of <0.1 mg/mL, Escherichia coli and Streptococcus group B (0.78 mg/mL), Acinetobacter spp., Proteus spp., and Staphylococcus aureus (1.6 mg/mL), Enterococcus faecalis and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (3.1 mg/mL), and Klebsiella spp. (12.5 mg/mL) | [72] | |
| Leaf | Microtitre dilution broth method | Active against Streptococcus group A and Streptococcus group B with an MIC value of 0.8 mg/mL, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus (3.1 mg/mL), and Proteus spp. and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (6.3 mg/mL) | [72] | ||
| Methanol | Fruit | Microtitre dilution broth method | Active against Streptococcus group A with an MIC value of 0.8 mg/mL, Streptococcus group B (1.6 mg/mL), Acinetobacter spp., Enterococcus faecalis, Proteus spp., and Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (3.1 mg/mL), Escherichia coli (6.3 mg/mL), and Klebsiella spp. (12.5 mg/mL) | [72] | |
| Leaf | Microtitre dilution broth method | Active against Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus group A and Streptococcus group B with an MIC value of <0.2 mg/mL, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Proteus spp., and Staphylococcus aureus (3.1 mg/mL), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (6.3 mg/mL) | [72] | ||
| Aqueous | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with 6 mm zone of inhibition, Bacillus cereus (8 mm), Escherichia coli (10 mm), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (13 mm) | [60] | |
| Dichloromethane | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with 6 mm zone of inhibition, Escherichia coli (9 mm), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (10 mm), Bacillus cereus (11 mm), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (15 mm) | [60] | |
| Ethanol | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with 4 mm zone of inhibition, Micrococcus luteus (7 mm), Bacillus cereus (8 mm), Escherichia coli (10 mm), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (11 mm), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (17 mm) | [60] | |
| n-Butanol | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with 5 mm zone of inhibition, Escherichia coli (10 mm), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (14 mm) | [60] | |
| n-Hexane | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with 6 mm zone of inhibition, Micrococcus luteus (7 mm), Bacillus cereus (8 mm), Escherichia coli (9 mm), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (12 mm) | [60] | |
| Aqueous | Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Micrococcus luteus with 8 mm zone of inhibition, Bacillus cereus with Klebsiella pneumoniae (9 mm), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (10 mm), and Escherichia coli (11 mm) | [60] | |
| Dichloromethane | Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Micrococcus luteus with 8 mm zone of inhibition, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (9 mm), Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (10 mm), Bacillus cereus (12 mm), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (13 mm) | [60] | |
| Ethanol | Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Micrococcus luteus with 8 mm zone of inhibition, Escherichia coli (10 mm), Bacillus cereus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (11 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (14 mm), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (15 mm) | [60] | |
| n-Hexane | Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Staphylococcus aureus with 9 mm zone of inhibition, Bacillus cereus (10 mm), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (12 mm) | [60] | |
| Aqueous | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Escherichia coli with an MIC value of 15 µg/ml, Klebsiella pneumoniae (30 µg/ml), Staphylococcus aureus (40 µg/ml), and Bacillus cereus (75 µg/ml) | [60] | |
| Dichloromethane | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Klebsiella pneumoniae with an MIC value of 20 µg/ml, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (25 µg/ml), Bacillus cereus (35 µg/ml), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (50 µg/ml) | [60] | |
| Ethanol | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Klebsiella pneumoniae with an MIC value of 15 µg/ml, Staphylococcus aureus (40 µg/ml), Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli (50 µg/ml), and Micrococcus luteus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (55 µg/ml) | [60] | |
| n-Butanol | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Klebsiella pneumoniae with an MIC value of 25 µg/ml, Staphylococcus aureus (36 µg/ml), and Escherichia coli (75 µg/ml) | [60] | |
| n-Hexane | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Bacillus cereus with an MIC value of 6.3 µg/ml, Klebsiella pneumoniae (25 µg/ml), Staphylococcus aureus (37 µg/ml), Escherichia coli (60 µg/ml), and Micrococcus luteus (75 µg/ml) | [60] | |
| Aqueous | Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa with an MIC value of 25 µg/ml, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae (35 µg/ml), and Bacillus cereus and Micrococcus luteus (75 µg/ml) | [60] | |
| Dichloromethane | Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Escherichia coli with an MIC value of 20 µg/ml, Klebsiella pneumoniae (24 µg/ml), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (25 µg/ml), Staphylococcus aureus (33 µg/ml), Micrococcus luteus (50 µg/ml), and Bacillus cereus (55 µg/ml) | [60] | |
| Ethanol | Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus with an MIC value of 20 µg/ml, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (25 µg/ml), and Bacillus cereus (50 µg/ml) | [60] | |
| n-Hexane | Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Active against Klebsiella pneumoniae with an MIC value of 24 µg/ml, Staphylococcus aureus (35 µg/ml), and Bacillus cereus (65 µg/ml) | [60] | |
|
| |||||
| Antidiabetic | Decoction extract | Fruit, leaf, and seed | α-Amylase | Decoctions active with IC50 values of 1.1 mg/mL (leaf), 5.3 mg/mL (unripe fruit), 6.8 mg/mL (seed), and 29.6 mg/mL (ripe fruit) | [13] |
| Fruit and leaf | α-Glucosidase | Decoctions active with IC50 values of 0.5 mg/mL (unripe fruit), 0.6 mg/mL (leaf), and 15.7 mg/mL (ripe fruit) | [13] | ||
| Methanol | Fruit, leaf, and seed | α-Amylase | Extracts active with IC50 values of 1.2 mg/mL (unripe fruit), 1.7 mg/mL (leaf), 3.8 mg/mL (seed), and 7.7 mg/mL (ripe fruit) | [13] | |
| Fruit, leaf, and seed | α-Glucosidase | Extracts active with IC50 values of 0.4 mg/mL (unripe fruit), 3.3 mg/mL (ripe fruit), 6.2 mg/mL (leaf), and 46.3 mg/mL (seed) | [13] | ||
| Ethanol | Bark | α-Amylase | Extracts active with IC50 values of 11.6 µg/mL | [73] | |
| Bark | α-Glucosidase | Extracts active with IC50 values of 1.8 µg/mL | [73] | ||
|
| |||||
| Antifungal | Several extracts | Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | n-Butanol and n-hexane active against Candida albicans with 9 mm zone of inhibition, ethanol (10 mm), aqueous (14 mm), and dichloromethane (20 mm) | [60] |
| Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Aqueous and n-hexane active against Candida albicans with 14 mm zone of inhibition, ethanol (18 mm), and dichloromethane (21 mm) | [60] | ||
| Leaf | Agar well diffusion method | Ethanol extract active against Candida albicans with an MIC value of 13 µg/ml, dichloromethane (14 µg/ml), aqueous (18 µg/ml), n-butanol (30 µg/ml), and n-hexane (35 µg/ml) | [60] | ||
| Stem bark | Agar well diffusion method | Ethanol extract active against Candida albicans with an MIC value of 15 µg/ml, dichloromethane (18 µg/ml), n-hexane (30 µg/ml), and aqueous (55 µg/ml) | [60] | ||
| Chloroform | Fruit | Agar well diffusion method | Chloroform extract active against Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans with 15 mm and 14 mm zones of inhibition, respectively | [74] | |
|
| |||||
| Antioxidant | Decoction | Fruit, leaf, and seed | DPPH | Extracts active with IC50 values of 132.8 µg/mL (leaf), 602.5 µg/mL (ripe fruit), and 612.5 µg/mL (unripe fruit and seed) | [13] |
| Methanol | Fruit, leaf, and seed | DPPH | Extracts active with IC50 values of 9.0 µg/mL (leaf), 10.0 µg/mL (unripe fruit), 48.5 µg/mL (ripe fruit), and 105.9 µg/mL (seed) | [13] | |
| Decoction | Fruit, leaf, and seed | FRAP | Exhibited antioxidant activity with 319.2 (seed), 322.9 (ripe fruit), 330.8 (unripe fruit), and 350.4 (leaf) mM Trolox equivalent (TE)/g fresh weight | [13] | |
| Methanol | Fruit, leaf, and seed | FRAP | Exhibited antioxidant activity with 346.7 (seed), 357.1 (ripe fruit), 361.3 (unripe fruit), and 372.5 (leaf) mM Trolox equivalent (TE)/g fresh weight | [13] | |
| Decoction extracts | Fruit, leaf, and seed | HOCl | Active with IC50 values of 235.6 µg/mL (leaf), 275.3 µg/mL (unripe fruit), 982.4 µg/mL (ripe fruit), and 6656.4 µg/mL (seed) | [13] | |
| Methanol | Fruit, leaf, and seed | HOCl | Active with IC50 values of 223.0 µg/mL (unripe fruit), 382.1 µg/mL (leaf), 418.9 µg/mL (ripe fruit), and 941.5 µg/mL (seed) | [13] | |
| Decoction extracts | Fruit, leaf, and seed | OH | Active with IC50 values of 157.2 µg/mL (unripe fruit), 261.0 µg/mL (ripe fruit), 289.0 µg/mL (leaf), and 803.8 µg/mL (seed) | [13] | |
| Methanol | Fruit, leaf, and seed | OH | Active with IC50 values of 0.1 µg/mL (leaf), 0.3 µg/mL (ripe and unripe fruits), and 22.4 µg/mL (seed) | [13] | |
|
| |||||
| Antioxidant | Decoction extracts | Fruit, leaf, and seed | NO | Active with IC50 values of 241.2 µg/mL (leaf), 436.2 µg/mL (unripe fruit), 2367.4 µg/mL (ripe fruit), and 6092.4 µg/mL (seed) | [13] |
| Methanol | Fruit, leaf, and seed | NO | Active with IC50 values of 43.2 µg/mL (leaf), 91.4 µg/mL (unripe fruit), 219.1 µg/mL (ripe fruit), and 1103.2 µg/mL (seed) | [13] | |
| Decoction extracts | Fruit, leaf, and seed | Iron chelation | Active with IC50 values of 0.3 µg/mL (seed), 0.6 µg/mL (ripe fruit), 1.0 µg/mL (unripe fruit), and 2.5 µg/mL (leaf) | [13] | |
| Methanol | Fruit, leaf, and seed | Iron chelation | Active with IC50 values of 0.0009 µg/mL (seed), 0.002 µg/mL (leaf), 0.06 µg/mL (ripe fruit), and 0.07 µg/mL (unripe fruit) | [13] | |
| Methanol | Bark, leaf, and seed | DPPH | Extracts active with IC50 values of 7.8 µg/ml (leaf), 31.3 µg/ml (seed), and 62.5 µg/ml (bark) | [17] | |
| Methanol | Bark, leaf, and seed | ORAC | Extracts active with 44.9 µM of Trolox (seed), 47.1 µM of Trolox (bark), and 72.7 µM of Trolox (leaf) | [17] | |
|
| |||||
| Antiplasmodial | Methanol | Leaf | G-3H hypoxanthine | Active against Plasmodium falciparum with IC50 values of 13.4 µg/ml and 34.0 µg/ml against D6 and W2 strains, respectively | [55, 56] |
|
| |||||
| Cytotoxicity | Crude extracts | Stem bark | MTT assay | Extracts active with EC50 values of 22.8 µg/ml (MCF-7), 28.4 µg/ml (HepG2), 34.4 µg/ml (PC-3), 42.5 µg/ml (A549), 44.5 µg/ml (WRL-68), 53.2 µg/ml (HT-29), and 64.7 µg/ml (WI-38T) | [17] |
|
| |||||
| Toxicity | Ethanol | Leaf and stem bark | In vivo animal toxicity activities | All extracts appear to be nontoxic with LD50 values of 3.8 g/kg | [60] |