Table 2.
Various therapies available to treat human papillomavirus (HPV).
| S. No. | Therapy available | Chemical used | Size of treatment group | Application format/ Modality | HPV types surveyed for/ detected | Reference(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Photodynamic therapy | 5-Aminolevulinic acid | 39 patients | 10% thermogel | Not specified | (259) |
| 30 women | Topical 6% 5-ALA in gel form | HPV types 16 and 18 | (351) | |||
| 41 patients | – | HPV types 11, 6, 1, 56, 52, 45, 53, 16, 31, 35, 39, 59, 51, 58, and 81 | (352) | |||
| Hexaminolevulinate (higher bioavailablity than 5-ALA) | 24 non-pregnant women | (10 mM) thermogel | HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, and 68. | (353) | ||
| 262 women of childbearing age | 5%, 1%, 0.2% ointment | HPVtypes 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, and 59 | (263) | |||
| 2. | Cryotherapy | – | 89 (≥18 years, HIV-1positive) | – | HPVtypes 45, 16,18,51, and 58 | (269) |
| Carbon dioxide as the refrigerant | 29 | “Double-freeze” procedure of two 3-minute freezes with a thawing interval of 5 min | HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68, 6, 11, 26, 34, 40, 42, 43, 44, 53, 54, 55, 57, 61, 70, and 71 | (354) | ||
| – | 79 (HIV-positive women) | – | HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, and 68 | (355) | ||
| Liquid nitrogen | 3 months old child | – | * | (356) | ||
| Carbon dioxide as the refrigerant | 34 | “Double-freeze” procedure of two 3-minute freezes with a thawing interval of 5 min | Pap smear test irrespective of HPV type | |||
| 3. | Loop Electrosurgical Excision Procedure (LEEP) | Electric current is passed through a loop of wire, that is used as scalpel to remove the tissue | 195 | Removal of epithelium and a small amount of underlying stroma from the entire cervical transformation zone | HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, and 68 | (357) |
| 354 | * | (358) | ||||
| 4. | Cytotoxic agents | Imiquimod (3.75% or 5% crea | – | Topical application | – | (359) |
| Podofilox 0.5% solution or gel | ||||||
| Sinecatechins 15% ointment | ||||||
| Bichloracetic acid 80%−90% | ||||||
| Trichloroacetic acid 80%−90% | ||||||
| Vidarabine/ 5-fluorouracil (5%) | (360) | |||||
| 30 | ** | (361) | ||||
| 5-Fluorouracil (5%) | 31 | Topical application | *** | (362) | ||
| Arsenic trioxide | – | Cell culture | HPVpositive HeLa cancer cell line | (363) | ||
| HeLa cells (HPV18 positive) | (364) | |||||
| Cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxaliplatin | – | SiHa (HPV 16+) CaSki (HPV 16+), HeLa (HPV 18+), and UT-DEC-1 (HPV 33+) cell lines | (365) | |||
| Imiquimod (5%) | 76 | Topical application in cream form | HPV types 6, 11, 42, 44, 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 45, 51, 52, and 56 | (274) | ||
| 72 | 250 mg cream | **** | (366) | |||
| 5. | Antiviral drugs | Cidofovir Cidofovir |
– | Local intratumor injections | HPV types 16 and 18 | (367) |
| SiHa, Caski, SCC-147, UM-SCC-47, UD-SCC-2 and UM-SCC-104 cell lines | HPV type 16 | (368) | ||||
| 31 | Adjuvant therapy (7.5 mg/ml) | HPV types 6, 11, and 16 | (369) | |||
| Ribavirin+pegylated interferon- alfa-2b | 1 (HIV negative male) | Ribavirin -oral form (400 mg twice / day)interferon- (120 μg subcutaneously once per week) | – | (289) | ||
| 1 (with acquired aplastic anemia) | Ribavirin -oral form (400 mg twice/ day) interferon- (10 million IU subcutaneously once per week) | HPV types 31, 52, and 6 | (288) | |||
| 1 (Human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus positive) | – | – | (370) | |||
| Cidofovir | 12 | Topical application | – | (258) | ||
| Acyclovir | 1 (Herpes Simplex Virus and Human Papillomavirus coinfection) | Intravenous (600 mg/three times a day) | – | (371) | ||
| AV2® (a combination of carvone, eugenol, geraniol, nerolidol in equal volumes diluted 50% in olive oil | 400 | Topical application | HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59, 66, and 68 | |||
| 6. | Gene therapy | Herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase expression | – | HPV positive CaSki and SiHa cells | HPV type 16 | (372) |
| 7. | Herbal therapy | Smoke of burned dried fruit of the pine tree | 03 | Twice a day | – | (373) |
| Paiteling | 239 | Applied 3 days after the end of menstruation (on days 1–4, 8–11 and 15–18)- a total of 12 such applications | HPV16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 45, 51, 52, 53, 56, 58, 59, 66, 68 and CP8304 | (374) | ||
| Carrageenan | – | Crosslinked 3% carrageenan beads | high-titer HPV16 pseudo-viruses into HeLa cells | (291) | ||
| 141 | Carrageenan-based gel | HPV types 6, 11, 40, 42, 44,54, 16, 18, 26, 31, 33, 34, 35, 39, 45,51, 52, 53, 56, 58, 59, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 82, 61,62, 71, 72, 81, 83, 84, and 89 | (375) | |||
| Youdujing preparation | 35 | YDJ external lotion | HPV16 and 18 | (294) | ||
| Podophyllotoxin (resin mixture from Podophyllum peltatum resin mixture from Podophyllum peltatum) | 27 Women | 20% solution | – | (376) | ||
| Pinelliapedatisecta | 15 mice | Dried rhizome extract (10 mg/kg/day) | CaSkicell line containing HPV16 | (377) | ||
| 8. | Ranpirnase RNase | Obtained from Leopard frog Rana pipiens | 42 male volunteers | 1 mg/ml ranpirnase formulation for topical application | HPV-11 infected A431 human epidermoid carcinoma cells | (302) |
| 9. | RNAi-based therapies | – | – | – | HPV 18 positive HeLa and C4I | (378) |
| 9 siRNAs against E6/ E7 genes of HPV-16 /18 | – | 17~22 sense and antisense hairpin oligonucleotide | HPV-positive CaSki (HPV-16) or HeLa (HPV-18) cell lines | (310) | ||
| HPV16 E7 siRNA | – | Chitosan/HPV16 –E7 siRNA complex | CaSki cells constitutively expressing HPV16 E6 and E7 | (311) | ||
| – | Chitosan/HPV16 E7 siRNA nanoparticle complex | (379) | ||||
| 10. | Miscellaneous therapies | Oral cimetidine | 4 children | 30–40 mg/kg daily divided into 3 doses | – | (380) |
| Levamisole | 40 patients | 5 mg/kg on 3 consecutive days fortnightly for 5 months | – | (381) | ||
| Propionibacterium acnes or Coryneobacterium parvum | 28 volunteers | Intradermal application of 0.1 ml culture in one wart, at 30–40 days intervals for a total of up to five times | – | (382) | ||
| Oral zinc sulfate | 20 patients | 10 mg/kg | – | (383) | ||
| Bacillus Calmette-Guérin Therapy | 50 patients | Local application of BCG mixweekly for 6 consecutive weeks | – | (384) | ||
| Cantharidin (Isolated from blister beetle, Cantharis vesicatoria) | 12 patients | 0.7% solution | – | (385) | ||
| Formic acid application | 100 patients | 85% | – | (386) | ||
| Bleomycin | Forty patients | 1 U/mlat 2-week intervals. | – | (387) |
*
Diagnosed by histopathological methods.
**
HPV typing by RFLP.
***
Biopsy confirmed case.
****
PCR based positive or negative detection.