Table 4.

Uro-neurological differential diagnoses of clinical cauda equina syndrome with normal MR imaging

	Urinary retention	Urinary incontinence
Neurological differential diagnoses*
Inflammation	Myelitis	Multiple sclerosis [8] Myelitis especially neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder [9]
Infectious	Elsberg’s syndrome [12], varicella zoster, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex, HIV [13, 14]
Vascular	Arteriovenous malformation [15], spinal infarction [16]	Cerebral stroke [17]
Neoplastic	Neoplastic or radiation induced [18]
Neurodegenerative	Multiple system atrophy [19]	Parkinson’s disease [19]
Urological differential diagnoses	Fowler’s syndrome [10] Idiopathic urinary retention	Exacerbation of prior urinary incontinence (affects 20% women over 40) [29] Bladder pain syndrome [11]
Medications (side effects recorded from the British National Formulary)	Opiates Anticholinergics (e.g. tricyclics) Benzodiazepines NSAIDs (risk increases in elderly and with higher doses)	Benzodiazepines Pregabalin SSRIs ACE inhibitors/diuretics
Other possibilities	Pain: radiculopathy is a common comorbidity Many cervico/thoracic pathologies can lead to cauda equina symptoms