TABLE 1.
Acute and longer-term trials investigating the effects of breakfast consumption on appetite and satiety outcomes1
| Breakfast elicited (↑, ↓, or Ø) response vs. breakfast skipping | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First author (reference) | Trial type (duration oftreatment) | Habitual breakfast habit | Breakfast composition, kcal (protein/CHO/fat, g) | Breakfast form | Hunger/appetite | Fullness/satiety | Ghrelin | PYY | GLP-1 |
| Allerton (14) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 430 (9/93/2) | Mixed | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — |
| 520 (22/95/2) | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — | ||||
| Astbury (15) | R-Cross (1 d) | Consumers | 260 (9/21/4) | Mixed | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — |
| Blom (16) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 180 (15/29/1) | Beverages | Ø | Ø | Ø | — | — |
| 640 (13/146/1) | ↓ | ↑ | ↓ | — | — | ||||
| 640 (13/146/1) | ↓ | ↑ | ↓ | — | — | ||||
| Chowdhury (17) | R-Cross (1 d) | Consumers and skippers | 520 (7/91/10) | Mixed | ↓ | — | ↓ | ↑ | — |
| Clayton (18) | R-Cross (1 d) | Consumers | 740 (20/130/14) | Mixed | ↓ | ↑ | Ø | — | ↑ |
| de Graaf (19) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 400 (1/99/1) | Beverages | Ø | — | — | — | — |
| 400 (3/5/92) | Ø | — | — | — | — | ||||
| 400 (70/27/3) | ↓ | — | — | — | — | ||||
| 250 (1/62/0) | Ø | — | — | — | — | ||||
| 250 (2/3/58) | Ø | — | — | — | — | ||||
| 250 (44/17/2) | ↓ | — | — | — | — | ||||
| 100 (0/25/0) | Ø | — | — | — | — | ||||
| 100 (1/1/23) | Ø | — | — | — | — | ||||
| 100 (18/7/1) | Ø | — | — | — | — | ||||
| Defeyter (20) | R-Cross (1 d) | Skippers | 180 (9/32/2) | Mixed | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — |
| Farshchi (21) | R-Cross (14 d) | Consumers | 250 (11/41/5) | Beverages | Ø | Ø | — | — | — |
| Gottero (22) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 400 (13/45/19) | Mixed | — | Ø | — | — | |
| 400 (0/100/0) | Beverages | — | Ø | — | — | ||||
| Hutchison (23) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 130 (30/0/0) | Beverages | ↓ | Ø | ↓ | — | ↑ |
| 280 (70/0/0) | ↓ | Ø | ↓ | — | ↑ | ||||
| Irvine (24) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 250 (4/39/9) | Beverages | Ø | Ø | — | — | — |
| 250 (20/39/2) | ↓ | Ø | — | — | — | ||||
| Kral (25) | R-Cross (1 d) | Consumers | 350 (11/69/4) | Mixed | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — |
| 350 (10/68/5) | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — | ||||
| 350 (12/69/4) | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — | ||||
| Leidy (26) | R-Cross (1 d) | Skippers | 510 (18/95/8) | Foods | ↓ | Ø | Ø | ↑ | — |
| 510 (49/63/8) | ↓ | ↑ | Ø | ↑ | — | ||||
| Leidy (3) | R-Cross (7 d) | Skippers | 350 (13/57/8) | Mixed | ↓ | ↑ | Ø | Ø | — |
| 350 (35/35/8) | Foods | ↓ | ↑ | ↓ | ↑ | — | |||
| Leidy (27) | RCT (12 wk) | Skippers | 350 (13/57/8) | Mixed | Ø | Ø | — | — | — |
| 350 (35/35/8) | Foods | ↓ | Ø | — | — | — | |||
| Levitsky (28) | R-Cross (1 d) | Consumers and skippers | 340 (9/74/<1) | Mixed | ↓ | — | — | — | — |
| 340 (15/64/2) | ↓ | — | — | — | — | ||||
| 620 (18/121/12) | ↓ | — | — | — | — | ||||
| Neumann (29) | Parallel (8 d) | Skippers | 350 (10/59/8) | Foods | Ø | ↑ | — | — | — |
| 350 (30/39/8) | Ø | ↑ | — | — | — | ||||
| Rains (30) | R-Cross (1 d) | Consumers | 288 (3/44/11) | Foods | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — |
| 280 (30/13/12) | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — | ||||
| 294 (38/3/14) | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — | ||||
| Stewart (31) | R-Cross (1 d) | Consumers | 340 (10/77/2) | Mixed | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — |
| Thomas (32) | R-Cross (1 d) | Consumers and skippers | 500 (29/75/18) | Mixed | Ø | Ø | Ø | ↑ | ↑ |
| Veasey (33) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 240 (9/38/4) | Mixed | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — |
| 120 (6/30/3) | ↓ | ↑ | — | — | — | ||||
| Vozzo (34) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 700 (25/107/20) | Foods | Ø | — | — | — | — |
| 700 (25/73/31) | Ø | — | — | — | — | ||||
| 700 (51/78/18) | Ø | — | — | — | — | ||||
1CHO, carbohydrate; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide 1; PYY, peptide YY; R-Cross, randomized crossover trial; RCT, randomized controlled trial; ↑, increased response; ↓, decreased response; Ø, no difference in response.