TABLE 2.
Acute and long-term trials investigating the effects of breakfast consumption on energy expenditure1
| Breakfast elicited (↑, ↓, or Ø) response vs. breakfast skipping | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First author (reference) | Trial type (duration oftreatment) | Habitual breakfast habit | Breakfast composition, kcal (protein/CHO/fat, g) | Food form | Resting energy expenditure | Postprandial energy expenditure | Physical activity |
| Betts (44) | R-Cross (6 wk) | Consumers and skippers | ≥700 (varied) | Mixed | Ø | ↑ | ↑ |
| Bo (45) | R-Cross (7 d) | Unknown | 1168 (88/114/40) | Foods | Ø | ↑ | — |
| Chowdhury (17) | RCT (6 wk) | Consumers and skippers | ≥700 (varied) | Mixed | Ø | ↑ | Ø |
| Clayton (18) | R-Cross (1 d) | Consumers | 724 (19.5/130/14) | Mixed | ↑ | ↑ | Ø |
| Halsey (46) | R-Cross (3 d) | Consumers | Ad libitum | Mixed | — | — | Ø |
| Karst (47) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 239 (0/60/0) | Beverages | — | Ø | — |
| 239 (60/0/0) | — | ↑ | — | ||||
| 239 (60/0/0) | — | ↑ | — | ||||
| 239 (60/0/0) | — | ↑ | — | ||||
| Kobayashi (48) | R-Cross (1 d) | Breakfast | 689 ± 492 (32/98/16) | Not Reported | Ø | ↑ | Ø |
| — | — | — | |||||
| Nair (49) | NR-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | 300 (0/75/0) | Beverages | — | ↑ | — |
| 300 (0/0/33) | — | ↑ | — | ||||
| 300 (75/0/0) | — | ↑ | — | ||||
| Neumann (29) | R-Cross (8 d) | Skippers | 350 (10/59/8) | Foods | Ø | ↑ | — |
| 350 (30/39/8) | Ø | ↑ | — | ||||
| Reeves (50) | R-Cross (7 d) | Consumers and skippers | Bf: 544 (unknown) | Mixed | Ø | Ø | Ø |
| Steiniger (51) | P (1 d) | Unknown | Bf1: 239 (60/0/0) | Beverages | Ø | ↑ | — |
| Bf2: 480 (120/0/0) | Ø | ↑ | — | ||||
| Welle (52) | R-Cross (1 d) | Unknown | Bf1: 400 (0/100/0 | Beverages | — | ↑ | — |
| Bf2: 400 (0/0/44) | — | ↑ | — | ||||
| Bf3: 400 (100/0/0) | — | ↑ | — | ||||
1Bf, Breakfast, CHO, carbohydrate; NR-Cross, non-randomized crossover trial; P, parallel trial; R-Cross, randomized crossover trial; RCT, randomized controlled trial.
2Mean ± SD.