Fig. (2).

Regulation of the autophagy pathway. Regulation of the autophagy pathway can be divided in mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) dependent pathway and independent pathway. Depending on different composition and structure, there are two mTOR complexes, mTORC1 and mTORC2. mTORC1 is regulated upon growth factors or starvation or other stress signals. While mTORC2 works via PI3K-protein kinase B (PKB/Akt) pathway in skeletal muscle cells only when in response to the emergency circumstance; The mTOR independent regulators involve P53, c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase 1 (JNK1), protein kinase A (PKA), reactive oxygen species (ROS), Ras and Beclin1-Bcl-2 interaction.